ESTABLISHED  and  conducted  according  to  the 
-^  EEGrxATioxs  adopted  by  tlie  Counril  .f  ,^ublk 
^..trurfon  for  Spp^  Cann.a.  dated  the  2nd  of  Augu 
18o3  under  the  authority  of  the  4th  and  llth  difXs 
0  he  X  eth,  the  4th  and  oth  clauses  of  the  9t^Tnd 
the    2nd  clause  of  the  120th  section  of  the  Upper 

^C  ^4  ^°'"'°°"  ^'''"°^  ^<=*'  22nd  vfct, 

XoTE.-This  Book  shall  always  be  known  by  the 

number  entered  above.  If  it  be  lost,  its  nameTnd  n«^! 

ber  must  stiU  remain  on  the  Catalogue  and  its  n?ac^„ 

as  possible.    (See  Library  Regulations,  No.  tt.) 
*f  Every  Work  must  be  retur,ied  to  the  Librae,, 


J2d^ 


*^ 


Urbana:  1  3   APR  1970 


Prof.  Peter  R.  Knights 
Department  of  History 
York  University 
Downsview,  Ontario  M3J  1 P3 


w 


THE 


AMERICAN  FARM  BOOK: 


OK 


COMPEND  OF  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE : 


PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  SOILS,  MANURES,  DRAINLmG 

IRRIGATION,  GRASSES,   GRAIN,   ROOTS,   FRUITS, 

COTTON,  TOBACCO,  SUGAR  CANE,  RICE, 


AND    EVERY 

STAPLE  PRODUCT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

WITH    THE 

BEST  METHODS 
OP  PLANTING,  CULTIVATING,  AND  PREPARATION  FOR  MARKET 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  MORE  THAN    100   ENGRAVINGS. 

By  R.  L.  ALLEN. 

AUTHOK    or  DliEAlES    OF   -' DOMEtTIC     ANIMALS."    AM    EDITOB    CW 
THE    AMERICAN    AGRICULTURIST   " 

NEW  YOEK: 
C.  M.  SAXTON,  BARKER  &  CO.,  25  PARK  ROW. 

SAN   FRANCISCO:    H.  H.    BANCROFT   &  CO. 
1860. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849,  by 

RICHARD     L.    ALLEX, 

lattie  Clerk'i  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  fcr  tne&>'ither» 

DiMrict  of  Xew  Yo-fc 


# 


C.  "W.  BENEDICT,  Sttreotyper, 

Ml    Wtlliam  ttreeU  eor.  of  Frmnkftin. 


TO 

THE  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

This  work  is  respectfully  dedicated,  with  the  hope  that 
it  will  add  its  mite  in  sustaining  and  carrying  forward  the 
great  agricultural  improvements  of  the  present  day.  To 
agriculture,  The  most  healthful,  the  most  useful. 
THE  most  noble  EMPLOYMENT  OF  MAN,  rather  than  to  any 
other,  or  perhaps,  than  to  all  others  combined,  must  we 
look  for  the  permanent  strength,  the  glory  and  happiness 
of  our  great  Republic, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Th«  .V«w.»cvn  Farm  Book  was  first  published  two 
years  since,  \.i  Irr  the  title  of  "  A  Brief  Compend  op 
American  Agriculture."  The  favor  with  which  it  was 
received  by  the  public,  and  its  extensive  sale,  have  induced 
a  thorough  revision,  with  the  addition  of  several  products 
not  previously  mentioned.  The  Southern  department  of 
the  work  has  been  enlarged  from  the  personal  observation 
of  the  Author,  during  two  years  residence  at  the  South. 

For  most  of  the  Illustrations  of  southern  plants,  the  author 
is  indebted  to  original  drawings  made  for  him  by  Don  Jose 
Maria  de  la  Torre,  of  Havana ;  and  of  those  of  the 
shade  trees  to  the  Publishers  of  Browa<*'s  Trees  of 
America. 

New  York,  January,  1849. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  work  on  American  Agriculture  is  intended 
as  one  of  the  first  in  the  series  of  lessons  for  the  American 
Farmer.  The  size  precludes  its  embracing  any  thing  be- 
yond the  shortest  summary  of  the  principles  and  practice 
by  which  he  should  be  guided,  in  the  honorable  career  he 
has  selected.  As  a  primary  work,  it  is  not  desirable  it 
should  comprise  so  much  as  to  alarm  the  tyro  in  agriculture 
with  the  magnitude  of  his  subject.  A  concise  and  popular 
exposition  of  the  principal  topics  to  which  his  attention  will 
necessarily  be  directed,  will,  it  is  believed,  in  connection  with 
his  own  observation  and  practice,  give  him  a  taste  for  fur- 
iher  research,  which  will  lead  him  to  the  fullest  attainment 
sn  agricultural  knowledge  that  could  be  expected  from  his 
■rapacity  and  opportunities. 

Much  of  what  is  detailed  in  the  present  volume,  has  been 
tested  by  the  writer's  own  experience  and  observation.  For 
the  remainder,  he  is  indebted  to  various  oral  and  written  in- 
formation, derived  from  the  best  agriculturists,  and  especially 
from  the  valuable  foreign  and  domestic  agricultural  periodi- 
cals of  the  present  day. 

"Whenever  original  authority  could  be  known  or  recollect 
ed,  it  has  been  credited ;  but  many  even  of  the  most  recent 
discoveries,  have  already  passed  through  such  numerous 
hands,  and  received  so  many  shades  of  alteration  or  improve- 
ment, that  their  authors  would  hardly  recognize  their  own 


▼1  PB.EPAC  E  . 

offspring.  It  woulii  nc  t  be  strange,  therefore,  if  they  had 
become  incorporated  in  the  mass  of  agricultural  principles, 
without  any  indication  of  their  origin.  The  same  or  similar 
discoveries  and  improvements,  are  also  not  unfrequently 
made  without  any  interchange,  by  different  minds  and  at 
remote  distances.  If  any  omissions  of  proper  acknowledg- 
ment have  occurred,  the  writer  will  be  happy  to  correct 
them  hereafter. 

To  the  experienced  and  scientific,  this  work  may  appear 
too  commonplace — to  the  uninstructed,  too  enlargec^  or 
abtruse.  It  was  not  intended  to  reconcile  impossibiUtles. 
The  first  must  look  to  elaborate  or  complete  treatises  for  the 
fullest  information  on  the  various  subjects  comprehended  in 
this  general  summary.  To  the  last,  it  must  be  answered, 
that  what  is  here  commimicated,  is  important  to  be  known ; 
that  modern  agriculture,  like  all  other  progressive  moderr 
sciences  and  arts,  has  necessarily  introduced  new  terms  fo. 
the  explanation  of  new  principles  and  new  practices ;  and 
the  former  must  be  learned  before  it  e  latter  caji  be  compre- 
hended. 


INTRODUCTION 


Agriculture,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  rrjiy  be  defined 
the  cultivation  of  the  earth  with  a  reference  to  the  produc- 
tion of  vegetables,  and  the  conversion  of  portions  of  them 
Lato  animals,  and  a  variety  of  forms,  which  are  the  best 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  mankind.  It  is  appropriately  dis- 
tinguished by  numerous  subdivisions. 

Tillage  Husbandry  consists  in  the  raising  of  grain,  roots 
and  other  products,  which  require  the  extensive  use  of  the 
plow  and  harrow  to  prepare  the  ground  for  annual  sowing 
and  planting. 

Grazing  is  limited  to  the  pasturing  and  winter  feeding 
of  farm  stock,  and  it  requires  that  the  land  appropriated  to 
this  purpose,  should  be  kept  in  pasturage  for  summer  food, 
and  in  meadows  to  yield  the  hay  necessary  for  winter's  use. 
In  its  strictly  technical  meaning,  grazing  implies  the  rear- 
ing of  farm  stock  till  they  have  attained  sufficient  maturity 
for  a  profitable  market,  as  far  as  this  maturity  can  be  secured 
051  grass  and  hay.  It,  however,  properly  embraces  in  its 
minor  divisions,  the  keeping  of  cows  for  the  purposes  of  a 
dairy,  and  the  support  of  flocks  for  the  production  of  wool. 

Feeding,  in  its  agricultural  signification,  consists  in  stall 
fattening  animals.  It  is  properly  connected  with  tallage 
husbandry  for  the  production  of  grain  and  roots,  and  by  the 
free  use  of  which,  animals  can  be  brought  to  a  higher  con- 
dition or  ripeness,  and  they  will  thus  command  a  much  bet- 
ter price  in  market,  than  if  fed  exclusively  on  grass  and  hay 


nil  INTRODUCTION. 

Breeding,  technically  defined,  is  restricted  to  the  produc* 
tion  of  choice  animals  for  use  as  future  breeders  by  the  judi« 
cious  selection  and  crossing  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  vari- 
ous distinct  breeds  of  domestic  stock. 

Horticulture  embraces  the  entire  department  of  garden- 
ing, the  cultivation  of  trees,  shrubbery,  and  fruits ;  and  these 
occupations  are  again  variously  subdivided. 

By  Planting  (or  the  occupation  of  planters),  is  under- 
stood the  cultivation  of  extensive  farms  or  plantations,  for 
the  exclusive  production  of  one  or  more  commercial  staples, 
such  as  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  indigo,  &c.,  and  their 
preparation  for  a  distant  market.  The  term  is  peculiarly 
sectional,  and  its  use  so  far  as  adopted  in  this  country,  is 
limited  to  the  southern  portion  of  it. 

All  of  the  foregoing  and  various  other  occupations  con- 
nected with  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  are  comprehended 
under  the  general  head  of  Agriculture. 

Besides  the  varied  practical  knowledge  which  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  proper  management  of  every  department  of 
agriculture,  its  general  principles  and  theoretical  relations 
require  a  familiarity  with  the  elements  of  History,  Geology, 
Meteorology,  Chemistry,  Botany,  Entomology,  Anatomy, 
Zoology,  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  and  Mechan- 
ics ;  and  in  their  ultimate  connection,  they  involve  no  incon- 
siderable share  of  the  entire  circle  of  human  knowledge  and 
science. 

In  view  of  its  intricacy,  its  magnitude,  and  its  importance 
to  the  human  race,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the 
peculiar  \visdom  of  Deity  in  assigning  to  man  this  occupa- 
tion, when  a  far-seeing  and  vigorous  intellect  fitted  him  to 
scan  with  unerring  certainty  and  precision,  the  visible  works 
of  his  Creator,  and  trace  their  causes  and  effects  through  all 
their  varied  lelations.  It  was  while  in  the  sinless  perfection 
of  his  original  nature,  when  "  the  Lord  God   put  him  into 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

whe  garden  of  Eden,  to  dress  it  and  to  keep  it,"  and  ag- 
riculture was  his  his  sole  occupation,  that  his  godlike  intel 
ligence  enabled  him,  instinctively  to  give  appropriate  names, 
indicative  of  their  true  nature  or  character,  "  to  all  cattle, 
and  to  the  fowl  of  the  air,  and  to  every  beast  of  the  field ;" 
and  so  just  and  accurate  was  his  perception,  that  "  whatso- 
ever he  called  every  living  creature,  that  was  the  name 
thereof." 

In  our  present  imperfect  condition,  a  beneficent  Provi- 
dence has  not  reserved  a  moderate  success  in  Agriculture, 
exclusively  to  the  exercise  of  a  high  degree  of  intelligence. 
His  laws  have  been  so  kindly  framed,  that  the  hand  even  of 
iminstructed  toil,  may  receive  some  requital  in  remunerating 
harvests  ;  while  their  utmost  fulness '  can  be  anticipated, 
only  where  corporeal  efforts  are  directed  by  the  highest 
intelligence. 

The  indispensable  necessity  of  an  advanced  agriculture  to 
the  comforts  and  wealth,  and  indeed,  to  the  very  existenae 
of  a  great  nation,  renders  it  an  object  peculiarly  worthy  the 
attention  and  regard  of  the  legislative  power.  In  looking  to 
the  history  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  we  find,  that 
wherever  a  people  have  risen  to  enduring  eminence,  they 
have  sedulously  encouraged  and  protected  this  right  arm  of 
Jtieir  strength.  Examples  need  not  be  given,  for  they  abound 
in  every  page  of  their  civil  polity. 

Our  own  country  has  not  been  wanting  in  a  moderate  re- 
gard for  Agriculture.  By  wise  legislation  in  our  National 
Congress,  every  item  of  extensive  agricultural  production 
within  the  United  States,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
inferior  avooIs,  is  believed  to  be  fully  protected  from  foreign 
competition,  by  an  unyielding  and  perfectly  adequate  impost 
on  all  such  articles,  as  would  otherwise  enter  into  a  success, 
ful  rivalry  with  them  from  abroad.  Many  of  our  subordi 
nate,  or  state  legislatrres,  1  ave  also,  by  liberal  provisions. 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

given  such  encouragement  to  various  objects,  as  they  deemed 
necessary  to  develope  the  agricviltural  resources  within  their 
jurisdiction.  S  ach  have  been  the  appropriations  for  numer- 
ous geological  and  other  state  surveys;  the  bounties  on  dif 
ferent  articles,  as  silk,  hemp,  and  some  others  ;  and  occa- 
sionally a  small  gratuity  to  encourage  the  formation  and 
support  of  State  and  County  Agricultural  Societies. 

But  while  we  "vvould  not  be  unmindful  of  what  has  here- 
tofore been  effected,  our  duty  compels  us  to  assert,  that  much 
yet  remains  to  be  done.  A  single  suggestion  for  the  action 
of  the  general  government  and  states,  is  all  that  our  limits 
will  permit  us  to  make. 

The  organization  of  a  National  Board  of  Agriculture,  com- 
posed of  able  and  intelligent  men,  expressly  selected  for  this 
purpose,  whose  sole  duty  it  should  be,  to  collect  all  informa- 
tion and  statistics  on  the  subject,  and  arrange  and  spread 
them  before  the  people  ;  to  introduce  new  and  valuable  for- 
eign plants.,  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate  ;  suggest  im- 
proved methods  of  cultivation  ;  recommend  and  disseminate 
the  most  approved  principles  of  breeding  domestic  animals  ; 
indicate  those  best  adapted  to  particular  purposes  or  peculiar 
localities  ;  point  out  new  avenues  for  the  profitable  disposal 
of  our  surplus  products ;  and  recommend  such  laws  or  their 
modification,  as  might  best  subserve  this  interest ;  in  short, 
who  should  stand  as  sentinels  and  defenders  on  the  w^atch- 
tower  of  this  great  citadel — this  is  the  lofty  duty,  and 
should  be  esteemed  the  peculiar  privilege  of  American  leg- 
islation to  accomplish.  This  was  a  favorite,  yet  not  a  fully 
digested  plan  of  Washington,  the  suggestions  of  whose  be- 
nevolent and  comprehenscve  mind  were  never  followed  but 
for  his  country's  good. 

From  the  individual  states,  a  ess  commanding,  but  not 
less  beneficial  duty  is  required.  Restrictions  wisely  impo- 
6P(J  upon  the  general  goven  nent,   limit  its   action  to  such 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

measures  only  as  are  essential  to  the  general  welfare,  and 
Buch  as  cannot  properly  be  accomplished  by  any  more  cir- 
cumscribe i  authority.  More  liberal  and  enlarged  grant? 
from  the  people,  give  to  ihe  state  legislatures  the  power  of 
doing  all  which  their  constituents  choose  to  have  effected 
for  their  own  benefit. 

Education  in  all  its  branches,  is  under  their  exclusive 
control  ;  and  to  endow  and  foster  every  institution  which 
has  a  tendency  to  raise  and  improve  the  intellectual,  the 
moral,  and  the  social  condition  of  the  people,  has  ever  been 
their  cherished  policy.  Yet  up  to  this  time,  no  institution 
expressly  designed  for  the  professional  education  of  farmers, 
has  ever  been  established  in  this  country.  That  far-seeing 
wisdom  which  characterizes  the  consummate  statesman,  and 
which  regards  the  future  equally  Avith  the  present  and  past, 
has  halted  upon  the  threshold  of  the  great  temple  of  agri. 
cultural  science,  whose  ample  and  enduring  foundations  have 
been  commenced  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  men  of  genius 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  To  aid  with  every  means  in 
their  power  in  laying  these  foundations  broad  and  deep,  to 
elevate  its  superstructure,  to  rear  its  mighty  columns,  and 
adorn  its  graceful  capitals,  would  seem  most  properly  to 
come  entirely  within  the  province  of  the  representatives  of 
intelligent  freemen,  the  great  business  of  whose  lives  is  the 
practice  of  agriculture. 

In  addition  to  continuing  and  making  more  general  and 
comprehensive  the  encouragement  for  other  objects  hereto- 
fore considered,  it  is  the  duty  of  each  of  the  larger  states  of 
::he  Union,  liberally  to  endow  and  organize  an  Agricultural 
College,  and  insure  its  successful  operation  within  Its  juris- 
diction. Connected  with  these,  should  be  example  and  ex- 
perimental farms,  where  th^  suggestions  of  science  should  be 
amply  tested  and  carried  out  before  submitting  them  to  the 
public.      The    mpjt  competent  men  at  home   and  abroad 


XI I  INTRODUCTION. 

should  be  invited  to  fill  a  professional  chair  ;  and  if  money 
would  tempt  a  Liebig,  a  Boussingault,  a  Johnston,  or  a 
Play  fair,  to  leave  the  investigations  of  European  soils  and 
products,  and  devote  his  mind  and  energies  to  the  improve- 
ment of  American  husbandry,  it  should  be  freely  given. 

These  institutions  should  be  schools  for  the  teachers 
equally  with  the  taught ;  and  their  liberally-appointed  labo- 
ratories and  collections  should  contain  every  available  means 
for  the  discovery  of  whai  is  yet  hidden,  as  well  as  for  the 
further  development  of  what  is  already  partially  known. 
Minor  institutions  should  of  course  be  established  at  differ- 
ent and  remote  points,  to  scatter  the  elements  of  agricultural 
knowledge  broadcast  over  the  land,  and  bring  them  within 
the  reach  of  the  poorest  citizens  and  the  humblest  capacities. 

By  such  a  liberal  and  enlightened  course,  we  should  not 
only  incalculably  augment  the  productive  agricultural  ener- 
gies of  our  own  country,  but  we  should  also  in  part,  repay 
to  the  world  at  large,  the  obligations  under  which  we  now 
rest  for  having  appropriated  numerous  and  important  disco- 
veries and  improvements  from  abroad.  If  we  have  the  ability 
which  none  can  doubt,  we  should  make  it  a  point  of 
honor  to  return  in  kind,  the  liberal  advances  we  have  thus 
received. 

It  is  to  the  rising  generation  these  suggestions  are  made; 
the  risen  are  not  yet  prepared  for  their  acceptance.  The 
latter  have  been  educated,  and  become  habituated  to  different 
and  more  partial  influences.  By  their  industry,  intelligence, 
and  energy,  displayed  in  numberless  ways,  and  especially  by 
their  protection  of  American  labor,  they  have  accomplished 
mwch  for  their  own  and  their  country's  welfare — they  are 
resolved  to  leave  this  glory  for  their  successes. 

New  York,  J^ne,  184C 


AMEEICAN  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


SOILS. 


Soils  are  those  portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  which 
contain  a  mixture  of  mineral  and  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances, in  such  proportions  as  adapt  them  to  the  support  of 
vegetation.  Rocks  are  the  original  basis  of  all  soils,  Avhich 
by  the  convulsions  of  nature,  or  the  less  violent  but  lono* 
continued  and  equally  etficient  action  of  air,  moisture  and 
frost,  have  been  broken  into  fragments  more  or  less  minute. 
There  are  various  gradations  of  these  changes. 

The  Texture  of  Soils. — Some  rocks  exist  in  laro-e 
boulders  or  rounded  stones,  which  thickly  overspread  the 
surface  and  mingle  themselves  with  the  earth  beneath,  o-ivino- 
to  it  the  character  of  a  rocky  soil.  The  smaller  sizes,  but  an 
equal  prevalence  of  the  same  materials,  distino-uish  the  sur- 
face where  they  abound,  as  a  stony  soil.  A  third  and  more 
mmute  division  is  called  a  gravelly  soil  ;  a  fourth  is  a  sandy 
soil ;  a  fifth  constitutes  a  loam  ;  and  a  sixth,  in  which  the  parti- 
cles of  earth  are  reduced  to  their  greatest  fineness,  is  known 
under  the  name  of  a  clay  soil. 

The  two  first  mentioned,  however,  are  not  properly,  dis- 
tinct soils,  as  the  only  support  of  any  profitable  vegetation, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  finer  earth  in  which  the  rocks  and 
stones  are  embedded.  In  frequent  instances,  they  materially 
benefit  the  crops,  by  the  influence  produced  from  their  shade, 
moisture,  and  protection  from  winds  ;  and  by  the  gradual 
decomposition  of  such  as  contain  lime,  potash  and  other  fer- 
tiUzing  materials,  they  enrich  the  soil  and  contribute  to  the 
support  of  vegetation.  Their  decomposition  is  hastened  by 
trie  apparently  worthless  vegetable  life  which  ihey  yield  to 
liio  liviu'j;  iiio.-ses  that  cling  to  tl  '»ir  .'-ides,   nr.d  every  where* 


14  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

penetrate  their  fissures ;  thus  imperceptibly  corroding  the 
solid  structures  and  preparing  them  for  future  r.sefulness  a? 
soils.  If  Ave  add  to  the  above,  a  peat  or  vegetable  soil,  we 
shall  have  the  material  divisions  of  soils,  as  distinguished  by 
their  texture. 

Besides  these,  soils  are  frequeii;ly  to  be  seen,  more  or  less 
extensive,  which  possess  peculiarities  entitling  them  to  a 
distinct  classification,  and  requiring  a  treatment,  in  some 
respects,  different  from  any  others.  Such  are  the  prarte 
soils,  which,  having  been  annually  burnt  over  for  ages,  are 
highly  charged  with  ashes  and  the  alkaline  salts.  Such 
also,  are  the  terre-gras  lands  in  Louisiana,  and  the  brick- 
mold  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  each  of  which  requires 
peculiar  management  in  plowing  and  cultivation. 

Other  Classifications  of  Soils. — Soils  are  also  dis- 
tinguished by  their  tendency  to  absorb  and  retain  water, 
gravel  and  sand  holding  very  little,  while  clay  and  peat 
readily  absorb  and  retain  a  great  deal ;  by  their  constant  satu- 
ration from  perennial  springs,  which  are  called  springy  soils ; 
by  the  quantity  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter  they  contain ; 
by  their  porosity  or  adhesiveness ;  by  their  chemical  charac- 
ter, whether  silicious,  argillaceous  or  calcareous  ;  by  the 
quality  and  nature  of  the  vegetation  they  sustain  ;  and  lastly, 
and  by  far  the  most  important,  they  are  distinguished  by  their 
fertility  or  barrenness,  the  result  of  the  proper  adjustment  and 
combination  of  most  of  the  conditions  enumerated.  Deserts 
of  sands,  layers  of  rocks,  stone  or  pure  gravel,  and  beds  of 
marl  and  peat  are  not  soils,  though  containing  many  of  their 
most  important  elements. 

It  is  apparent  to  the  most  casual  observer,  that  soils  fre- 
quently, and  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees,  change  from 
one  character  to  another,  and  that  no  classification,  however 
minute,  will  suffice  to  distinguish  each.  Seme  obvious  yet 
simple  distinctions,  which  are  usually  recognized,  must 
nevertheless  be  assumed  for  future  reference.  For  this  pur- 
pose, and  to  avoid  unecessary  deviations  from  Avhat  should 
be  a  common  standard,  we  shall  adopt  the  arrangements  as 
made  by  Professor  Johnston,  whicii  is  based  principally 
upon  their  chemical  constituents. 

"  1°.  Pure  clay  (pipe-clay)  consisting  of  about  60  of  silica 
and  40  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  .ron.  for  the  most  part  chem- 
ically combined.  It  allows  no  silicious  sand  to  subside  when 
diffused  through  water,  and  rarely  forms  any  extent  of  soil. 

2°.  Stro7tgesT  clay  soil  (tile-clay,  "nctuous  clay)  consists  of 


SOILS.  15 

pure  clay  mixed  with  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  a  silicious  sand, 
which  can  be  separated  from  it  by  boilir  g  and  decantation. 

3'^.  C/ay  /oa7?i  diifers  from  a  clay  soil,  in  allowing  from 
15  to  30  per  cent,  of  fine  sand  to  be  separated  from  it  by 
washing,  as  above  described.  By  this  admixture  of  sand, 
its  parts  are  mechanically  separated,  and  hence  its  freer  and 
more  friable  nature. 

4°.  A  loamy  soil  deposits  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand, 
by  mechanical  washing. 

5°.  A  sa?idy  loam  leaves  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  sand, 
and 

6°.  A  sandy  soil  contains  no  more  than  ten  per  cent,  of 
pure  clay. 

The  mode  of  examining,  with  the  view  of  naming  soils, 
as  above,  is  very  simple.  It  is  only  necessary  to  spread  a 
weighed  quantity  of  the  soil  in  a  thin  layer  upon  writing 
paper,  and  to  dry  it  for  an  hour  or  two  in  an  oven  or  upon  a 
hot  plate,  the  heat  of  which  is  not  sufficient  to  discolor  the 
paper — the  loss  of  weight  gives  the  water  it  contained. 
While  this  is  drying,  a  second  weighed  portion  may  be 
boiled  or  otherwise  thoroughly  incorporated  with  water,  and 
the  whole  then  poured  into  a  vessel,  in  which  the  heavy  sandy 
j)arts  are  allowed  to  subside  until  the  fine  clay  is  beginning 
to  settle  also.  This  point  must  be  carefully  watched,  the 
liquid  then  poured  oft;  the  sand  collected,  dried  as  before 
upon  paper,  and  again  weighed.  This  weight  is  the  quan- 
tity of  sand  in  the  known  weight  of  moist  soil,  which  by  the 
previous  experiment  has  been  found  to  contain  a  certain 
quantity  of  water. 

Thus,  suppose  two  portions,  each  200  grs.,  are  weighed, 
and  the  one  in  the  oven  loses  50  grs.  of  water,  and  the  other 
leaves  60  grs.  of  sand,— then,  the  200  grs.  of  moist  are  equal 
to  150  of  dry,  and  this  150  of  dry  soil  contain  60  of  sand,  or 
40  in  100  (40  per  cent.).  It  would,  therefore,  be  properly 
called  a  loam,  or  loami^  soil. 

But  the  above  classification  has  reference  only  to  the  clay 
and  sand,  while  we  know  that  lime  is  an  important  constituent 
of  soils,  of  which  they  are  seldom  entirely  destitute.  We 
have,  therefore, 

7°.  Marly  soils,  in  which  the  proportion  of  lime  is  more 
than  five  but  does  not  exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight 
of  the  dry  soil.  .The  marl  is  a  sandy,  loainy,  or  clay  marl, 
according  as  the  proportion  of  clay  it  contains  would  place  it 
under  th^  one  or   other   denomination,  supposing  it  to  be 


16  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

entirely  free  fiom  lime,  or  not  to  contain  more  tlan  five  pe» 
cent.,"  and 

8°.  Calcareous  soils,  in  which  the  lime  exceeding  20  pei 
cent,  becomes  th-e  distinguishing  constituent.  These  are 
also  calcareous  clays,  calcareous  loams,  or  calcareous  sands 
according  to  the  proportion  of  clay  and  sand  which  are 
present  in  them. 

The  determination  of  the  lime  also,  when  it  exceeds  five 
per  cent.,  is  attended  with  no  difficulty. 

To  100  grs.  of  the  dry  soil  diff"used  through  half  a  pint  of 
cold  water,  add  half  a  wine  glass-full  of  muriatic  acid  (the 
spirit  of  salt  of  the  shops),  stir  it  occasionally  during  the  day, 
and  let  it  stand  over  night  to  settle.  Pour  off'  the  cleai 
liquor  in  the  morning  and  fill  up  the  vessel  with  water,  to 
wash  away  the  excess  of  acid.  When  the  water  is  again 
clear,  pour  it  off,  dry  the  soil  and  weigh  it — the  loss  wih 
amount  generally  to  about  one  per  cent,  more  than  the  quan- 
tity of  lime  present.  The  result  will  be  sufficiently  near, 
however,  for  the  purposes  of  classification.  If  the  loss 
exceed  five  grs.  from  100  of  the  dry  soil,  it  may  be  classed 
among  the  marls,  if  more  than  20  grs.  among  the  calcareous 
soils. 

Lastly,  vegetable  matter  is  sometimes  the  characteristic 
of  a  soil,  which  gives  rise  to  a  further  division  of 

9-.  Vegetable  inolds,  which  are  of  various  kinds,  from 
the  garden  mold,  which  contains  from  five  to  ten  per  cent., 
to  the  peaty  soil,  in  which  the  organic  matter  may  amount 
to  60  or  70.  These  soils  also  are  clayey,  loamy,  or  sandy, 
according  to  the  predominant  character  of  the  earthy  ad- 
mixtures. 

The  method  of  determining  the  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  for  the  purposes  of  classification,  is  to  dry  the  soil  well 
in  an  oven,  and  weigh  it ;  then  to  heat  it  to  dull  redness  over 
a  lamp  or  a  bright  fire  till  the  combustible  matter  is  burned 
away.  The  loss  on  again  weighing  is  the  quantity  of  organic 
matter." 

The  foregoing  are  only  such  general  divisions,  as  possess 
properties  sufficiently  common  to  each,  to  require  a  treatment 
nearly  similar.  Besides  their  principal  component  parts, 
every  soil  must  contain  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  all  the 
elements  which  enter  into  the ,  composition  of  vegetables. 
They  may  have  certain  substances  which  are  not  necessary 
to  vegetable  life,  and  some  one  or  all  of  such  as  are,  may  ba 
contained  in  excess;  yet  to  sustain  a  healthy  prolific  vegeta 


SOILS.  17 

tion,  they  must  hJd,  and  in  a  form  fitted  tc  its  support,  silex, 
alumina,  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  hme,  potash,  soda, 
magnesia,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  oxide  of  iron,  manganese, 
chlorine,  and  probably  iodine.  These  are  called  the  inor- 
ganic or  earthy  parts  of  soils,  as  they  are  found  almost 
exclusively  in  combination  with  earths,  salts,  or  minerals. 
They  however, constitute  from  less  than  0.5  (one  half  of  one) 
to  over  10  per  cent,  of  all  vegetables.  In  addition  to  these, 
fertile  soils  must  also  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and 
hydrogen,  which  are  called  the  organic  parts  of  soils,  from 
their  great  preponderance  in  vegetables  and  animals,  of 
which  they  constitute  from  about  90,  to  over  99  per  cent. 
d  their  entire  substance. 

Clay  Soils — their  Characteristics  and  Treatment 
— Clay  soils  are  usually  denominated  cold  and  wet,  from 
their  strong  affinity  to  water,  which  they  generally  hold  in 
too  great  excess  for  rapid  or  luxuriant  vegetation.  The 
alumina  which  exists  in  clay,  not  only  combines  with  water 
forming  a  chemical  compound,  but  the  minute  division  of 
its  particles  and  their  consequent  compactness,  oppose  seri- 
ous obstacles  to  the  escape  of  such  as  comes  in  contact  with  it. 
Hence,  the  necessity  of  placing  it  in  a  condition  to  obviate 
these  essential  defects. 

The  most  effectual  method  of  disposing  of  the  surplus 
water  in  clay  soils,  is  by  underd raining.  This  draws  off 
rapidly,  yet  by  imperceptible  degrees,  all  the  excess  of  water, 
and  opens  it  to  the  free  admission  of  atmospheric  air ;  and 
this,"  in  its  passage  through  the  soil,  imparts  heat  and  such  of 
the  gases  it  contains,  as  are  useful  in  sustaining  vegetation. 
When  these  are  not  constructed,  open  drains  should  be 
formed  wherever  water  stands  after  rains.  The  slight  ele- 
vation and  depression  of  the  surface  made  by  careful  plow- 
ing, will  probably  be  sufficient,  if  they  terminate  in  some 
ravine  or  artificial  ditch,  and  have  size  and  declivity  enough 
to  pass  off  the  water  rapidly. 

Clay  soils  are  greatly  improved  by  coarse  vegeta,Lj#  ma- 
nures, straw,  corn-stalks,  chips,  &c.,  which  tend  to  the  sepa- 
ration of  its  particles.  The  addition  of  sand  is  very  benefi- 
cial, but  this  is  too  expensive  for  large  fields.  Lime  is  also 
a  valuable  material  for  a  clay  soil,  as  by  the  chemical  combi- 
nations which  are  thereby  induced,  the  extreme  tenacity  of 
the  soil  is  broken  up  ;  while  the  lime  adds  an  ingredient  of 
fertility,  not  before  possessed  by  it,  perhaps,  to  an  adequate 
extent.     Gypsum  has  the  same   effect,  in  a  more  powerful 


18  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

degree.  Paring  and  burning,  (by  which,  the  surface  con 
taining  vegetable  matter,  is  collected  into  heaps  and  fired, 
reducing  the  mass  to  a  charred  heap,  which  is  theu  spread 
over  and  mixed  with  the  soil,)  produce  the  same  result. 
This  is  a  practice  which  has  been  long  in  use  in  different 
parts  of  Europe ;  but  although  attended  Avith  immediate  and 
powerful  results,  it  :s  too  expensive  for  general  introduction 
into  a  country,  where  labor  is  high,  and  land  and  its  product* 
comparatively  cheap. 

Wherever  frosts  and  snow  abound,  the  plowing  of  clay 
lands  for  spring  crops,  should  be  done  in  the  autumn  if  prac- 
ticable ;  by  which  theii  adhesiveness  is  temporarily  destroyed, 
the  earth  is  enriched  by  the  suoavs,  and  tinely  pulverized 
by  the  frost,  and  they  are  left  in  the  finest  condition  for  early 
spring  sowing,  and  without  additional  working.  If  plowed 
in  the  spring,  it  should  be  done  when  they  are  neither  too 
wet  nor  dry ;  if  the  former,  the  earth  subsequently  bakes,  and 
for  a  long  time,  it  is  almost  impenetrable  to  the  hoe  or  the 
teeth  of  the  harrow ;  if  too  dry,  they  are  so  compact  as  to  be 
turned  over  only  with  great  effort,  and  then  in  solid  lumps. 
The  action  of  the  atmosphere,  will  pulverize  these  masses 
of  baked  earth  after  a  time  ;  but  not  sufficiently  early  in  most 
of  our  northern  states,  for  the  convenience  or  advantage  of 
such  crops  as  are  immediately  to  follow  the  plowing.  For 
much  of  the  South,  plowing  clay  lands  in  the  autumn  is  worse 
than  useless ;  as  the  loose  earth  thus  thrown  up,  is  soon  re- 
duced by  the  heavy  winter  rains  to  a  compact  surface,  ap- 
parently as  unfitted  for  cultivation,  without  subsequent  plow- 
ing, as  the  incrustations  of  lava  from  a  volcano. 

No  soils  are  so  tenacious  of  the  manures  which  may  be 
incorporated  with  them  as  the  clays.  They  form  an  inti 
mate  combination,  both  mechanical  and  chemical,*  and  hold 

•  By  mechanical,  in  the  sense  above  used,  is  understood  the  external 
relation  of  bodies,  which  is  nearly  equivalent  in  its  meaning  in  this 
connection,  to  artificial.  Thus  the  clay  envelopes  the  manure,  and 
from  its  impervious  character  shields  it  from  escape  either  by  drainage 
or  evaporation,  and  almost  as  effectually,  as  if  it  were  enclosed  in  an 
earthen  vessel. 

By  chemical  is  meant,  its  internal  or  constitutional  character.  Thus 
clay  not  only  absorbs  the  gases  which  are  brought  into  contact  with  it 
from  manures,  from  moisture  and  from  air,  as  a  sponge  absorbs  water  ; 
but  it  also  forms  new  combinations  with  them,  which  change  the  ori- 
ginal nature  of  these  elementary  principles,  and  from  light  evanescent 
gases,  they  become  component  parts  of  solid  bodies,  in  which  condi- 
tion they  are  retained  till  exhausted  by  the  growing  vegetation. 

These  terras  are  important,  and  should  be  fully    mderstood.    Foi 


SOILS.  19 

fhem  securely  against  waste  from  drainage  jt  evRj^^)ration 
for  an  indefinite  time,  till  the  growing  crops  demand  them. 
They  also  greedily  seize  upon  and  hoard  up  all  such  fertil- 
izing principles  as  are  conveyed  to  them  by  the  air  and 
rains.  We  may  mention  as  an  example  of  their  efficiency 
in  abstracting  vegetable  nutrition  from  the  atmosphere,  that 
many  of  them,  when  thrown  out  from  a  great  depth  below 
the  surface,  and  entirely  destitute  of  organic  remains  (vege- 
table or  animal  matter),  after  an  exposure  for  some  months 
to  its  meliorating  influence,  become  capable  of  bearing  large 
crops,  without  the  aid  of  manvxre.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  the  clays  which  rest  on  the  Onondaga  limestone,  an  eX' 
tensive  group  occupying  the  central  and  north-western  part 
of  New  York. 

The  clays  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of 
most  of  the  grains,  and  the  red  and  white  clovers  cultivated 
in  the  United  States.  These  they  yield  in  great  profusion 
and  of  the  best  quality ;  and  so  peculiarly  suited  are  they  to 
permanent  meadows  and  pasturage,  that  they  are  styled  by 
way  of  eminence,  grass  lands.  They  are  justly  character- 
ised as  strong  and  lasting  soils ;  and  when  properly  managed 

the  purpose  of  still  more  clearly  elucidating  the  subject  to  the  mind 
of  the  young  student,  we  give  some  further  examples.  If  we  take  a 
piece  of  crystalized  marble,  compact  uncrystalized  limestone,  and 
chalk,  we  shall  have  three  substances  exactly  alike  in  their  chemical 
character  ;  for  they  are  all  chemical  combinations  of  carbonic  acid  and 
lime,  associated  together  in  precisely  the  same  proportions.  But  in 
their  external  arrangements,  as  they  appear  in  a  recent  fracture  to  the 
eye  and  touch,  that  is,  in  their  mechanical  arrangements,  they  are 
totally  dissimilar. 

Again — If  we  take  the  pure  lime, (quick  lime), that  is  obtained  from 
each  of  the  foregoing  by  subjecting  them  to  an  intense  heat,  by  which 
the  carbonic  acid  is  expelled,  and  pour  upon  it  nearly  one  third  of  its 
weight  of  water,  great  heat  is  developed,  and  the  lime  both  mechanical- 
ly absorbs,  and  chemically  combines  with  it,  forming  a  new  compound, 
or  salt,  which  is  a  hydrate  of  lime. 

If  sand  (mostly  silex)  be  added  to  the  lime  with  water,  and  mechan- 
ically mixed  or  stirred  together  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a  sufficient 
time,  they  will  combine  chemically,  forming  silicate  of  lime,  the 
common  mortar  of  stone  masons. 

Sand  (silex)  stirred  in  with  clay, (an  impure  alumina),  is  mechani- 
cally mixed  ;  if  then  subject  to  a  strong  heat  as  in  making  brick,  they 
become  chemically  united,  forming  silicate  of  alumina,  inseparable  by 
any  human  means  short  of  the  chemists  crucible.  If  we  divide  or 
separate  a  stick  by  splilting  or  cutting,  it  is  a  mechanical ;  and  if  by 
burning  or  charring,  it  is  a  chemical  change.  Thus  every  alteration, 
either  in  nature  or  art,  is  referable  to  one  of  the  above  conditions  oi 
changes. 


20  AMERICAN    AGRICCLTCRE. 

and  put  to  their  appropriate  use,  they  are  esteemed  as  among 
the  choicest  of  the  farmer's  acres. 

Saxdy  Soils  and  their  Management. — The  character 
and  treatment  of  sandy  soils,  are  in  ahnost  every  particular 
the  reverse  of  those  of  clay.  They  do  not  possess  the 
property  of  adhesiveness,  and  they  have  but  little  affinity  for 
Waaler,  which  escapes  from  them  almost  as  soon  as  it  falls. 
They  have  but  a  slight  hold  upon  the  manures  which  are 
diffused  through  them  ;  they  are  loose  in  their  texture,  and 
may  be  plowed  at  any  time,  but  with  most  advantage  when 
wet.     The  sowing  or  planting  should  follow  immediately. 

As  clay  soils  are  much  benefited  by  a  mixture  of  sand,  so 
likewise  are  sandy  soils  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of 
clay,  yet  in  a  much  higher  degree ;  for  though  it  would  never 
pay,  as  a  general  rule,  to  add  sand  to  clay,  yet  the  addition  of 
a  few  loads  of  the  stiffest  clay  to  a  light  sand,  would  in  almost 
every  instance,  much  more  than  compensate  for  the  trouble 
and  expense.  For  this  purpose,  the  clay  should  be  thinly 
spread  in  autumn,  upon  sward  land  previously  plowed,  and 
the  winter's  frost  ■will  effectually  separate  the  particles.  It 
should  then  be  harrowed  thoroughly  and  deeply  in  the  spring, 
and  subsequently  plowed  if  necessary.  Such  a  dressing  on 
a  light  crawling  sand,  is  more  than  equivalent  to  an  equal 
quantity  of  the  best  manure,  and  will  be  permanent  in  its 
effects.  Clay  and  sand  are  necessary  to  each  other,  as  they 
both  contain  qualities  which  are  essential  to  a  good  soil ;  and 
that  will  always  be  found  the  best,  which  has  the  proper 
proportion  of  each. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  the  frequent  use  of  a  heavy 
toiler ;  it  cannot  be  used  too  often.  They  require  to  be 
made  more  compact,  and  any  treatment  that  secures  this 
object,  "will  be  advantageous. 

Lime,  by  its  chemical  action  on  the  constituents  of  soils, 
while  it  separates  clay,  renders  sand  more  adhesive ;  and 
when  cheaply  obtained,  it  is  always  a  profitable  dressing  for 
sandy  soils,  to  the  full  amr  ant  they  may  require.  Gj'psum, 
in  considerable  quantities,  has  an  effect  similar  to  lime,  both 
on  clay  and  sand ;  and  when  added  in  smaller  portions,  pro- 
duces a  striking  increase  in  the  crops  of  sandy  soils.  Clay 
marls,  containing  either  carbonate,  sulphate,  or  phosphate 
of  lime,  are  of  great  value  to  sandy  soils.  Equally  bene- 
ficial are  ashes,  leached  or  unleached,  peat,  or  vegetable 
manures  of  any  kind.  Some  calcareous  sands,  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  lime,  like  those  of  Egypt  and  exten- 


SOILS.  1^] 

sive  regions  in  the  Bai  oary  States,  will  produce  IniKuriantly, 
if  supplied  with  a  sHght  addition  of  manure  and  an  abun- 
dance of  ■water.  Sandy  soils  can  never  be  profitably  culti- 
vated, till  thsy  have  acquired  sufficient  compactness  and  fer- 
tility, to  sustain  a  good  growth  of  grass  or  clover  ;  and 
when  once  brought  to  this  condition,  they  are  among  the 
most  valuable  for  tillage,  especially  for  such  crops  as  require 
early  maturity. 

They  are,  at  all  times,  easily  plowed  and  worked  ;  they  re- 
quire no  draining ;  and  tliough  light  and  dry,  are  quick  and 
kindly  soils,  giving  an  immediate  and  full  return  for  the  labor 
and  manure  bestowed  upon  them.  When  in  a  condition  to 
produce  grass,  sheep  are  admirably  adapted  to  preserve  and 
augment  their  fertility,  and  by  their  incessant  migrations 
over  it,  their  sharp  hoofs  pack  the  surface  closely,  producing 
the  same  effect  as  the  roller. 

Gravelly  Soils  are  in  some  respects  similar  to  sand,  but 
much  less  desirable,  being  appropriately  termed  hungry. 
Like  the  latter,  they  are  peculiarly  leachy,  but  in  an  increased 
degree,  permitting  the  rapid  escape  ot  manures,  both  ly 
evaporation  and  drainage.  Such  as  are  calcareous  or  com- 
pocscd  of  limestone  pebbles,  are  in  a  great  measure  not  sub- 
ject to  these  objections ;  as  the  disposing  affinities  of  the 
lime,  (of  which  enough  will  be  found  to  exist  in  the  soil  in 
a  finely  comminuted  or  divided  state,  and  in  this  condition 
is  enabled  to  act  efficiently,)  have  a  tendency  to  retain  the 
vegetable  matters,  thus  compacting  the  soil,  and  holding 
whatever  food  of  plants  may  from  time  to  time  be  given  to 
it,  for  the  wants  of  future  crops.  Unless  of  this  latter  de- 
scription, gravelly  soils  should  not  be  subjected  to  tillage, 
but  appi'opriated  to  pasturage,  when  sheep  will  keep  them 
in  the  best  and  most  profitable  condition  of  which  they  art 
capable. 

Loamy  Soils  being  intermediate  between  clay  and  sand, 
possess  characteristics,  and  require  a  treatment  approximating 
to  one  or  the  other,  according  to  the  predominance  of  either 
quality.  They  are  among  the  most  desirable  soils  for  the 
various  purposes  of  agriculture. 

Marly  and  Calcareous  Soils  have  always  a  full  supply 
of  lime,  and  like  the  loams,  they  frequently  incline  towards  a 
clay  or  sand,  requiring  a  management  corresponding  to  their 
character.  Putrescent  and  vegetable  manures  increase  their 
fertility,  and  these  are  held  Avith  great  tenacity  till  exhausted 
by  ciops.     In  durability  or  lastingness,  they  cnniiot  be  ex- 


22  AMERICAN    AGRK  ULTUKE. 

ceeded ;  and  ew  are  more  profitable  for  cultivation  oi 
grazing. 

Alluvial  Soils,  are  such  as  have  been  formed  from  the 
washing  of  streams.  They  vary  in  their  characteristics, 
from  a  mixed  clay  to  an  almost  pure  sand  ;  but  generally,  they 
combine  the  components  of  soils  in  such  proportions  as  are 
designated  by  loamy  soils,  or  sandy  loams.  When  thus 
formed  they  are  exceedingly  fertile  ;  and  if  subject  to  the  an- 
nual overflow  of  a  stream,  having  its  sources  far  above  them, 
they  usually  receive  such  an  addition  to  their  productiveness, 
as  enables  them  to  yield  large  ■'•i-ops  perpetually,  without 
further  manuring. 

They  are  for  the  most  part  easily  worked,  and  are  suited 
to  the  various  purposes  of  tillage  and  meadows ;  but  when 
exposed  to  overflowing,  it  is  safer  to  keep  them  in  grass,  as 
this  crop  is  less  liable  to  injury  by  a  freshet ;  and  where  sub- 
ject to  washing  from  the  same  cause,  a  well-matted  sod  is 
the  best  protection  which  can  be  offered  against  it.  Many 
of  the  natural  grasses  which  are  found  in  these  meadows, 
yield  a  fodder  of  the  highest  value. 

Peaty  Soils.  These  are  composed  almost  wholly  of  peat, 
and  are  frequently  called  vegetable  soils.  They  are  exten- 
sively diffused  between  the  latitudes  of  40°  and  60°  north, 
at  a  level  with  the  ocean,  and  are  frequently  found  in  much 
lower  latitudes,  when  the  elevation  of  the  surface  produces 
a  corresponding  temperature.  They  generally  occupy  low 
swampy  levels,  but  sometimes  exist  on  slight,  northern 
declivities,  where  the  water  in  its  descent  is  arrested  by  a 
succession  of  basin-shaped  cavities. 

Their  peaty  character  is  acquired,  by  the  growth  and  par- 
tial decay,  through  successive  ages,  of  various  aquatic  plants, 
the  principal  being  the  sphagnums  and  lichens.  In  swamps, 
many  of  which  were  probably  small  lakes  in  their  origin, 
the  peat  is  found  of  an  unknown  depth,  reaching  in  some 
instances,  beyond  30  and  40  feet.  On  declivities  and  occa- 
sional levels,  the  peat  is  sometimes  only  a  few  inches  in 
thickness.  It  is  of  a  blackish  or  dark  brown  color,  and  exists 
in  various  stages  of  decay,  from  the  almost  perfect  state  of 
fallen  stumps  and  leaves,  to  an  imperfectly  defined,  ligneous 
mass,  or  even  an  impalpable  powder. 

In  its  natural  state,  it  is  totally  unfit  for  any  profitable 
vegetation,  being  saturated  with  water,  of  an  antiseptic  na- 
lure,  whicii,  for  an  almost  indefinite  time,  resists  putrefaction 
or  decay.     When  throvra  out  of  its  native  bed  and  exposed 


SOILS.  23 

to  drain  for  a  few  months,  much  of  it  is  fit  for  fuel ;  and  it 
is  always  of  advantage  to  the  muck  heaps,  as  an  absorbent 
of  the  liquid  and  gaseous  portions  of  animal  and  other  vola- 
tile manures ;  or  it  is  of  great  utility  when  applied  alone  to 
a  dry,  gravelly  or  sandy  soil 

Cultivation  of  Peat  Soils.  When  it  is  desirable  to  culti- 
vate a  peaty  soil,  the  first  process  is  to  drain  it  of  all  the 
moisture  which  has  given  to  it,  and  sustained  its  present 
character.  The  drains  must  be  made  sufficiently  near  to 
each  other,  and  on  every  side  of  the  bed ;  or  they  must,  at 
least,  be  so  located  as  effectually  to  intercept  and  carry  off  all 
the  springs  or  running  water  which  saturates  the  soil ;  jind 
they  should  be  deep  enough  to  prevent  any  injurious  capil- 
lary attraction  of  the  water  to  the  surface.  When  it  has 
been  thoroughly  drained,  the  hommocs  if  any,  must  be  cut 
up  with  the  mattoc  or  spade,  and  thrown  into  heaps,  and 
after  they  are  sufficiently  dried,  they  may  be  burned,  and  the 
^shes  scattered  over  the  surface.  These  afford  the  best  top 
dressing  it  can  receive.  Sand  or  fine  gravel,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  barn- yard  manure  and  effete  lime,  should  then  be 
added.  On  some  of  these,  according  as  their  composition 
approaches  to  ordinary  soils,  good  crops  of  oats,  corn,  roots, 
&c  may  be  grown  ;  but  they  are  better  suited  to  meadows, 
and  vhen  thus  prepared,  they  will  yield  great  burthens  of 
clovL  r,  timothy,  red  top,  and  such  of  the  other  grasses  as  are 
adapted  to  moist  soils.  Subsequent  dressings  of  sand,  lime, 
manure  and  wood  ashes,  or  of  all  combined,  may  be  after- 
wards required,  when  the  crops  are  deficient,  or  the  grasses 
degenerate. 

Peat  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbon,  and  the  silicates 
in  which  such  soils  are  deficient,  (and  which  they  procure 
only  in  small  proportions  from  the  farm-yard  manure,  but 
more  largely  from  the  sand  or  gravel,)  are  essential  to  be 
added,  in  order  to  furnish  an  adequate  coating  for  corn  stalks, 
straw  and  the  valuable  grasses.  As  they  are  exhausted, 
they  must  b^  again  supplied  or  the  crops  will  fail.  Besides 
yielding  an  important  food  to  the  crop,  lime  is  essential  to 
produce  decomposition  in  the  mass  of  vegetable  matter,  as 
Avell  as  to  combine  ■with  and  aid  in  furnishina;  to  the  grow- 
ing plants,  such  of  their  food  as  the  atmosphere  contains. 
Ashes  are  among  the  best  applications,  as  they  possess  the 
Bilicates,  lime,  potash,  and  other  inorganic  materials  of  plants 
in  great  abundance,  and  in  a  form  readily  adapted  to  vegeta^ 


24  AMERICAN    AGEICULTURE. 

We  nutrition.     Gypsum  is  also  a  valuable  mant;re  for  peaty 
soils. 


SUBSOILS  Airo  THEIH  MANAGEMENT. 

The  efficiency  of  soils  in  producing  good  crops,  depends 
much  on  the  subsoil.  If  this  consists  of  impervious  clay  or 
hard-pan,  which  prevents  the  drainage  of  the  water,  it  is 
evident,  the  accumulation  of  heavy  rains  will  materially  in- 
jure the  vegetation  above ;  for  it  is  certain,  that  while  no- 
thing is  more  essential  to  productiveness  than  an  adequate 
supply  of  moisture  for  the  roots,  nothing  is  more  injurious 
than  their  immersion  in  stagnant  water.  If  this  description 
of  subsoil  be  deep,  the  only  remedy  is  thorough  underdrain- 
ing  ;  if  shallow,  the  crust  may  be  broken  up  with  the  subsoil 
plow  and  gradually  mixed  Avith  the  surface  soil,  when  the 
water  will  readily  escape  below. 

A  variety  of  plows  have  been  constructed  for  this  purpose  ; 
but  unless  it  be  intended  to  deepen  the  soil  by  an  admixture 
of  manures,  they  must  not  be  used  for  bringing  up  the 
subsoil  too  rapidly,  to  mix  with  that  on  the  surface.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  more  ready  escape  of  water,  thus  secured  by 
breaking  it  up,  the  air  is  also  admitted,  which  enables  the 
roots  to  strike  deeper,  and  draw  their  nourishment  from  a . 
much  greater  depth.  The  increased  distance  through 
which  the  roots  penetrate,  furnishes  them  with  additional 
moisture  during  a  season  of  drought,  thereby  securing  a  lux- 
uriant crop  when  it  might  otherwise  be  destroyed.  This  is 
frequently  a  great  item  in  the  profit  of  the  farmer  ;  as,  be- 
sides the  increase  of  crop  which  follows  a  dry,  hot  season, 
when  a  full  supply  of  moisture  is  furnished,  the  product  is 
usually  of  better  quality ;  and  the  general  deficiency  of  agri- 
cultural produce,  which  ensues  from  seasons  of  drought, 
makes  his  own  more  valuable. 

As  a  result  of  this  practice,  there  is  also  a  gradual  increase 
in  the  depth  of  the  soil ;  as  the  fine  and  more  soluble  parti- 
cles of  the  richer  materials  above,  are  constantly  working 
down  and  enriching  the  loosened  earth  below.  In  time, 
this  becomes  good  soil;  and  this, in  proportion  to  its  depth, 
increases  the  area  from  which  the  roots  derive  their  nutri- 
ment. So  manifest  are  the  advantages  which  have  followed 
the  use  of  subsoil  plows,  that  they  have  been  extensively 
introduced  of  late  years,  among  the  indispensable  tools  of 
file  better  class  of  asrricuiturisis. 


SOILS.  26 

When  ..le  subsoil  is  loose  and  leachy,  (consisting  of  an 
excess  oL  sand  or  gravel,)  thereby  allowing  the  too  ready 
escape  df  moisture  and  the  soluble  portions  of  manures,  the 
subsoil  plow  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  positively  injurious. 
In  this  case,  the  surface  soil  should  be  somewhat  deepened 
by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matters,  so  as  to  afford  a  greater 
depth  through  which  the  soluble  manures  must  settle,  be- 
fore they  can  get  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots ;  and  the 
eupply  of  moisture  would  thereby  be  much  augmented.  It 
.s  better,  however,  to  keep  lands  of  this  character  in  wood  or 
permanent  pasture.  They  are  at  best,  ungrateful  soils,  and 
make  a  poor  return  for  the  labor  and  manure  bestowed  upon 
them. 

If  there  be  a  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  surface  and 
subsoils,  one  being  inclined  to  sand  and  gravel,  and  the 
other  to  marl  or  clay,  a  great  improvement  will  be  secured, 
by  allowing  the  plow  to  reach  so  far  down  as  to  bring  up 
and  incorporate  with  the  soil,  some  of  the  ingredients  in 
which  it  is  wanting.  This  admixture  is  also  of^remarkable 
benefit  in  old  or  long-cultivated  fields,  which  have  become 
deficient  in  inorganic  matters,  and  in  their  texture. 

The  effect  ^  lojig  continued  cultivation,  besides  ex- 
hausting what  is  essential  to  the  earthy  part  of  plants,  is  to 
breakdown  the  coarser  particles  of  the  soil,  by  the  mechani- 
cal action  of  the  plow,  harrow,  &c. ;  and  in  a  much  more 
rapid  degree,  by  the  chemical  -combinations,  which  cultiva- 
tion and  manuring  produce.  A  few  years  suffice  to  exhibit 
striking  examples  in  the  formation  and  decomposition  of 
rocks  and  stones.  Stalactites  and  various  specimens  of  lime- 
stone, indurated  clays,  sandstone  and  breccias  or  pudding 
stones,  are  formed,  in  favorable  circumstances,  almost  under 
our  eye;  while  some  limestones,  shales,  sandstones,  &c., 
break  down  in  large  masses  annually,  from  the  combined 
effect  of  moisture,  heat,  and  frost.  The  same  changes,  on  a 
smaller  scale,  are  constantly  going  forward  in  the  soil,  and 
much  more  rapidly  while  under  cultivation.  The  general 
tendency  of  these  surface  changes,  is  towards  pulverisation 
The  particles  forming  the  soil,  from  the  impalpable  mite  ol 
dust  to  the  large  pebbles,  and  even  the  stones  and  rocks  are 
continually  broken  up  by  the  combined  action  of  the  vital 
roots,  and  the  manures  incorporated  with  the  soil,  by  which 
new  elements  of  vegetable  food  are  developed  and  become 
available,  and  in  a  form  so  minute  as  to  be  imbibed  by  the 
spongioles  of  the  roots ;  and  by  the  absorbent  vessels,  they 


26  AMSRICAN    AurRICULTURE. 

are  afterwards  distributed  in  their  appropriate  places  in  the 
plant.  Wliere  this  action  has  been  going  on  for  a  long 
period,  a  manifestly  beneficial  efiect  has  immediately  fol- 
lowed, from  bringing  up  and  mixing  with  the  superficial 
earth,  portions  of  the  subsoil  wliich  have  never  before  been 
subject  to  cultivation. 

A  subsoil  which  is  permeable  by  water,  is  sometimes 
imperceptibly  beneficial  to  vegetation,  not  only  by  allowing 
the  latent  moisture  to  ascend  and  yield  a  necessary  supply 
to  the  plants;  but  a  moisture  frequently  charged  with  lime 
and  various  other  salts,  Avhich  the  capillary  attraction 
brings  from  remote  depths  below  the  surface.  It  is  probably 
from  this  cause,  that  some  soils  produce  crops  far  beyond  the 
yield  which  might  be  reasonably  looked  for,  from  the  fertili- 
zing materials  actually  contained  in  them.  This  operation 
is  rapidly  going  forward  during  the  heat  of  siunmer.  The 
water  thus  charged  with  saline  matters,  ascends  and  evapo- 
rates at  and  below  the  surface,  leaving  them  diffused 
throughout  the  soil.  After  long  continued  dry  weather,  a 
thin,  whitish  coatingof  these  salt.s,  is  frequently  discernible 
on  the  ground.  The  enriching  effect  of  these  deposites,  is 
one  of  the  compensating  results,  seldom  discovered  or 
acknowledged  perhaps,  yet  Avisely  designed  by  a  beneficent 
Providence,  to  secure  a  future  and  increased  fertility  from  the 
temporary  loss  occasioned  by  drought. 

Where  rain  seldom  or  never  falls,  this  result  is  noticeable 
in  numerous,  and  sometimes  extensive  beds  of  quiescent 
(not  shifting)  sand.  Deposits  ofttimes  occur  several  inches 
in  thickness.  Such  are  the  extensive  beds  of  impure  muri- 
ate of  soda  and  other  salts,  in  the  arid  deserts  of  California ; 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Oregon ;  the  nitrates  found  in  India, 
Egypt,  Peru,  and  various  other  parts  of  the  world. 

ADDITIONAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

Besides  the  qualities  of  soils  already  noticed,  there  are 
Beveral  physical  conditions  which  affect  their  value.  They 
should  be  of  sufficient  depth,  friable  or  easily  pulverized ; 
they  should  possess  the  right  color,  and  be  susceptible  of  the 
proper  admission  and  escape  of  heat,  ai.   anfl  moisture. 

Jethro  Tull,  who  wrote  more  than  a  century  ago  on  the 
subject  of  agriculture,  maintained  that  if  a  soil  be  worked  to 
a  proper  depth,  and  perfectly  well  pulverized,  nothing  more 
is  necessary  to  insure  an  indefinite  succession  of  the  rrost 


?Oii^.  27 

(uxuriant  c/ops,  without  the  aid  oi  manures  ;  aud  'A  mus  ba 
confessed,  his  practice  gave  some  apparently  strong  confirnia 
tions  of  his  theory.  By  carrying  tillage  far  below  the  surface, 
thus  se3uring  the  minute  division  of  the  earth  to  a  great 
depth,  and  rendering  it  permeable  to  the  roots,  he  insured 
the  free  access^of  air  and  moisture,  which  are  among  the 
first  and  most  important  requisites  in  the  growth  of  ^'ege- 
tables. 

But  Tull  wrote  before  agriculture  became  a  science,  and 
omitted  to  estimate  the  large  amount  of  fertile  ingredients, 
which  every  crop  takes  out  of  the  soil,  and  which  can  only  be 
supplied  by  the  addition  of  fresh  materials.  A  succession  of 
crops  would  therefore,  so  far  reduce  the  soil,  as  to  render  it 
necessary  to  add  manures,  or  vegetation  must  inevitably  fail. 
This  careful,  laborious  practice,  could  only,  for  the  time  being, 
enhance  the  crop  and  prolong  its  available  supplies  ;  yet  in 
accomplishing  even  this  object,  his  example  is  w^orthy  of 
imitation  by  every  tiller  of  the  soil. 

Friableness  of  the  Soil  is  a  quality  equally  removed 
from  the  adhesiveness  of  strong  clay,  or  the  openness  of  loose 
sand.  Good  loam,  and  fertile,  alluvial  soils  always  possess 
this  property.  When  stirred  by  the  plow,  the  spade  or  the 
hoe,  the  earth  ought  to  fall  and  crumble  readily,  although 
it  should  be  Avet.  Such  a  condition  secures  a  ready  admis- 
sion to  the  roots,  Avhich  thus  easily  per^^ade  the  soil,  and 
draw  their  necessary  support  from  it  in  every  direction 
Under  draining,  and  the  addition  of  coarse  manures  to  clay, 
fermented  manures  and  ashes  to  sand,  and  lime  and  gypsum 
to  both,  will  materially  enhance  their  friableness. 

Color  is  an  essential  featiu-e  in  soils,  and  like  friableness, 
it  has  an  important  relation  to  their  capacity  for  heat  and 
moisture.  Dark-colored  earths,  and  black  in  the  highest 
degree,  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  an j^  other  when  exposed 
to  a  temperature  above  their  own  ;  and  it  escapes  with  equal 
readiness  when  their  relative  temperature  is  reversed. 

A  ?-ough  pulverised  surface,  which  is  seen  in  the  minute 
inequalities  of  a  friable  and  well  cultivated  soil,  produces 
the  same  result.  During  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  especially 
when  the  sun's  rays  fall  upon  the  earth,  the  dark,  friable  soil 
imbibes  the  heat  freely,  and  transmits  it  to  the  remotest  roots  ; 
thiis  securing  that  warmth  to  the  plant,  v.-hicli  s  one  of  the 
necessary  conditions  of  its  growth.  When  the  temperature 
of  the  air  falls  on  the  approach  of  evening,  a  reversed  action 
»li  the  soil  takes  place,  by  which  the  heat  as  rapidly  escapes 


'<iS  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Tliis  immediately  brings  the  surface  to  the  dew  point  and 
secm-es  a  copious  deposit  of  moisture,  which  a  friable  soil 
speedily  conveys  to  every  part  of  the  roots. 

Tfie  dew  point  is  attained  \vhe,n  the  surface  of  any  ob- 
ject is  below  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air.  The 
careful  observer  will  not  fail  to  discover  the  formation  of 
dew,  not  only  for  some  time  after  the  sun  has  risen,  and 
long  before%e  sinks  below  the  horizon,  when  the  condition 
above  indicated  exists ;  but  sometimes  even  in  the  fervor  of 
a  mid-day  sun,  when  the  thick  corn,  or  any  luxuriant  vege- 
table growth  repels  his  fierce  rays  from  the  earth.  In  many 
instances,  the  rank,  dark  growing  crops  themselves,  Avhen 
shielded  from  the  sun's  rays  by  their  overspreading  tops, 
become  rapid  condensers  of  atmospheric  vapor,  and  the  plant 
drinks  in  the  "wholesome  and  nutritious  aliment  at  every 
pore,  and  frequently  collects  a  surplus,  which  streams  down 
its  sides  to  the  thirsty  soil  be^j*h.  T^e,  principle  is  further 
illustrated,  by  the  deposit  of  moisture  ah  large  globules  on 
the  surface  of  any  object  in  the  shad|?f which  is  sensibly  be- 
low the  surrounding  temperature  ;  as  is  shoAvn  by  an  earthen 
or  metallic  vessel  filled  with  cold  water,  and  set  in  a  warm 
room  on  a  summer's  day. 

The  proper  capacity  of  soils  for  imbibing  ayid  parting 
with  moisture,  gives  them  another  decided  advantage  over 
others,  which  have  it  in  an  imperfect  degree  ;  as  it  is  found 
by  recent  experiments,  that  rich,  porous  soils,  which  are 
readily  penetrated  by  water  and  air,  absorb  the  nutritious 
gases,  (oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  their  compounds,  nitric  and 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  &c.)  largely  from  the  atmosphere  ; 
and  that  they  do  this  to  an  appreciable  extent,  07ily  ichile 
moist.  The  effect  of  this  will  readily  be  estimated,  frori  the 
well-known,  beneficial  influence  exerted  on  the  growing 
plant,  by  the  presence  of  these  important  elements. 

Light  colored  clays,  viai'ls,  and  sands,  are  neither  in  their 
mechanical  texture,  friableness,  or  color,  the  best  suited  to 
promote  the  growth  of  plants.  Peat  soils,  from  a  deficiency 
of  inorganic  materials,  and  their  too  great  affinity  for  water 
in  their  natural  condition,  are  even  less  adapted  to  the  object 
than  either  of  i^  preceding. 

Schubler  has-lound,  that  during  12  hours  in  the  night 
when  the  air  was  moist,  1,000  lbs.  of  entirely  dry  quartz,* 

'  Quartz,  is  analyzed  by  Bergman,  gave  93  per  cent,  of  silex  ;  6  of 
ftlumina  ;  and  I  of  oxide  of  iron.  It  comes  so  near  a  pure  silica,  that 
in  treating  of  it  agriculturally,  we  speak  of  it  aa  silex  or  silica. 


scir.s.  29 

or  common  sand  did  not  gain  a  pound ;  calcareous  sand 
gained  2  lbs. ;  loamy  soil,  21  lbs. ;  clay  loam,  25  4bs.  ;  such 
as  were  rich  in  vegetable  mold,  still  more  ;  while  peat  ab- 
sorbed a  much  larger  per  cent,  than  either, 

Davy  also  found,  th3,t  the  same  quantity  of  very  fertile 
and  perfectly  dry  soil,  on  exposure,  gained  18  lbs.  in  one 
hour  ;  a  good  sandy  soil,  under  the  same  circumstances,  ab- 
sorbed 11  pounds;  a  coarse,  inferior  sand,  8  lbs.,  and  an 
almost  worthless  heath,  (gravelly  soil),  gained  but  3  pounds 

The  capacity  of  soils  for  retaining  water,  is  somewhat 
proportionate  to  that  of  absorbing  it : — 

Of  its  own  weight. 
Quartz  sand  is  saturated  when  it  contains  24  per  cent. 
Calcareous  sand        "  "  "  28        " 

Loamy  soil  "  "  "  38        " 

Clay  loam  "  "  "         47        " 

Peat  (about)  "  «  "  80        " 

1 1  is  thus  evident,  that  perfection  is  not  obtained  in  either 
sandy,  gravelly,  clay,  or  peat  soils,  as  they  are  characterized 
in  the  classification  we  have  assumed.  1:  is  only  when  they 
have  been  improved  by  partial  admixture  with  each  other, 
and  charged  with  the  proper  quantity  of  vegetable  manures, 
and  the  salts  which  are  requisite  for  their  fertility ;  when 
they  have  been  drained,  wherever  necessary  to  free  them 
from  stagnant  water,  whether  upon  or  within  the  soil,  or  to 
remove  any  noxious  springs,  which  sometimes  contain  mat- 
ters in  solution,  injurious  to  vegetation  ;  and  finally,  when  the 
subsoil  is  in  the  proper  condition  to  facilitate  the  free  admis- 
sion and  escape  of  moisture  and  air,  and  the  extension  of 
the  roots  in  every  direction — it  is  only  when  all  these  con- 
ditions exist,  that  the  fullest  products  from  soils  can  be 
realized. 

It  is  absolutely  essential  to  profitable  cultivation,  that  all 
the  earthy  substances  required  by  the  crops,  should  exist  in 
the  soil  in  sufficient  quantities,  and  in  an  accessible  form,  to 
supply  their  wants.  The  proportions  may  be  various,  one 
sometimes  greatly  predominating  over  another,  as  is  suffi- 
ciently obvious  in  the  equally-productive  powers  of  good 
clays,  sands,  and  peats ;  yet  in  every  instance  it  will  be 
found,  unless  owing  to  a  heavy  coating  of  manures,  and  a 
peculiarly  favorable  season,  that  a  soil  can  be  relied  on  fof 
such  constant  results,  only  when  it  has  been  so  ameliorated 
as  to  approxima.:e  towards  the  character  of  loams. 


30  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  three  specimens  of  very 
fertile  sfjils,  made  by  Sprengel :  — 

Soil  near  From  the  banks  of  the  Weser. 

Osterbruch.  near  Hoya.  near  Weserbo. 

Silica.  Quartz,  Sand,  and  Silicates 84.510  71.849  83.318 

Alumina. 6.435  9.350  3.085 

Oxides  of  Iron 2.395  6.410  5.840 

Oxides  of  Manganese 0.450  0.935  0.630 

Lime 0.740  0.987  0.720 

Magnesia 0.525  0.245  0.120 

Potash  and  Soda  extracted  by  water.... 0.009  O.Offl  0.005 

Phosphoric  Acid 0.120  0.131  0.065 

Sulphuric  Acid 0.046  0.174  0.025 

Chlorine  in  common  Salt 0.006  0.002  0.006 

Humio  Acid 0780  1.270  0.800 

Insoluble  Humus 2.995  .550  4.126 

Organic  matters  containing  Nitrogen.. 0.960  2.000  1.220 

Water 0.029  0.100  0.150 


100.  100.  100. 

The  above  had  remained  for  a  Icng  time  in  pasture,  and 
the  second  was  remarkable  for  the  fattening  qualities  of  its 
grass  when  fed  to  cattle. 

The  following  are  arable  lands  of  great  fertility : 

1  2  3 

From  Ohio.  Soil 

Soil  from  Moravia.    Soil.  Subsoil.         From  Belgium 

Silica  and  fine  Sand 77.209           87.143  94.261  64..517 

Alumina 8.514              5.666  1.376  4.810 

Oxides  of  Iron 6.592              2.220  2.336  8.316 

Oxide  of  Manganese 1.520              0.360  1.200  0.800 

Lime 0.927              l).564  0.243     ^11^^°^      9.403 

Magne.sia 1.160  ,,,,„  .  ..g     Carb.  of  .- .. 

Potash,  chiefly  combined  With  -^"^  "•***"        Mag.     '"'*'' 

Silica 0.140  0.120  >  „  „ .„  <  0.100 

Soda,  ditto 0.640  0.025  J  —^  ?  0.013 

Phosphoric  Acid   combined 

with   Lime  and   Oxide  of 

iron 0.651  0.060  trace  1.221 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  Gypsum..  O.Oll  0.027  0.034  0.009 

Chlorine  in  common  Salt....  0.010  0.036  trace  0.003 

Carbonic  Acid  united  to  the 

Lime 0.080  

Humic  Acid 0.978  1.304  0.44T 

Insoluble  Humus 0.540  1.072  

Organic  substances  contain'g 

nitrogen 1.108  1.011  

100.  100.  100.  100. 

"  Of  these  soils,  the  first  had  been  cropped  for  160  years 
successively,  without  either  manure  or  naked  fallow,  The 
second  was  a  virgin  soil,  and  celebrated  for  its  fertility.  The 
third  had  been  unmanured  for  twelve  years,  during  the  last 
nine  of  whi(?h  it  had  been  cropped  with  beans,  barley,  pota- 
toes, winter  barley  and  red  clover,  clover,  winter  barley 
wheat,  oats,  naked  fallow." — (Johnston.) 

Bergman  found  that  one  of  the  most  fertile  soils  in  Swe« 


SOILS.  31 

den  centained  30  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Chaptal 
analyzed  a  very  productive  soil  in  France,  which  gave  near 
25  per  cent  of  the  same,  and  seven  of  organic  matter.  Tillet 
even  found  one,  and  that  the  most  fertile,  which  yielded 
37.5  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Some  of  the  best  in  the  Missis- 
sippi valley,  have  yielded  upon  analysis,  20  per  cent,  of  mag- 
nesian  lime  ;  and  of  phosphate  of  lime,  two  to  three  per  cent. 
Many  other  soils  throughout  the  United  States,  contain  an 
equal  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Such  are  ahvays  the 
last  to  wear  out,  and  the  first  to  recover  by  the  addition  of 
manures,  when  suifered  to  remain  uncultivated,  or  in  a  state 
of  rest. 


4^^ 


32  AMERICAN    AGRICULTTIRB. 


CHAPTERII. 


MANURES. 

While  soils  are  permitted  to  remain  in  their » t^oTh  state, 
or  if  denuded  of  their  original  foliage  and  used  only  i«r  pas- 
lure,  little  or  no  change  is  perceptible  either  in  tnei^  charac- 
ter or  productive  powers.  A  slight  change,  liowever,  is 
gradually  wrought  in  their  texture  and  capacity  for  produc- 
tion, which  is  fully  revealed  in  the  lapse  of  centuries.  The 
elevated  mountain's  side,  and  the  steep  declivities  of  hills, 
support  an  annual  vegetation  of  more  or  less  luxuriance ; 
and  a  portion  of  this,  together  with  the  broken  twigs  and  the 
■wasting  trunks  of  fallen  trees,  are  carried  down  by  the  rains, 
and  become  a  rich  addition  to  the  lower  soils  on  which  they 
ultimately  rest.  Beside  the  vegetable  matter  thus  annually 
removed  from  one  spot  and  accumulated  upon  another, 
many  of  the  fertilizing  salts,  which  the  action  of  the  roots,  or 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere  has  rendered  soluble,  and  the 
finer  particles  of  earth,  which  the  alternations  of  heat  and  frost, 
of  rain  and  drought,  have  reduced  to  dust,  are  also  washed 
out  of  the  higher  soils  and  deposited  on  the  plains  and  val- 
leys below.  Such  doubtless,  was  once  the  condition  of  those 
secondary  bottom-lands,  which  for  ages,  probably,  received 
the  rich  deposits  from  other  soils  ;  but  whose  present  situa- 
tions, elevated  beyond  even  the  extraordinary  rise  of  the 
rivers  whose  course  is  near,  show  some  radical  alteration  of 
their  respective  levels,  by  which  the  inundations  no  longer 
contribute  to  their  fertilization. 

These  soils  being  well  stored  with  the  food  of  plants,  and 
frequently  to  a  great  depth,  will  bear  large  suocessive  crops 
for  a  long  period :  and  they  have  in  manv  ipstances,  been 
treated  by  their  first  occupants  as  if  thev  were  inexhausti- 
ble. Of  this  description,  were  the  James  Hivet  and  other 
alluvial  lands  in  Virginia,  some  of  ^vhich  Avere  continued  in 
uninterrupted  crops  of  corn  and  tobacco  for  more  than  a  f'en- 
tury,  without  the  addition  of  manures.  But  they  have  'oug 
since  become  exhausted  ;  and  the  more  careful  planters  ar** 


MANURES.  33 

now  endeavoring  to  resuscitate  those  worn-out  lands,  which 
ought  never  to  have  become  impoverished.  Of  the  same 
character  are  most  of  the  secondary  bottoms  on  tlie  Con 
necticut,  the  Scioto,  the  Miami,  and  otlier  rivers.  The  first, 
although  imder  cultivation  for  more  than  two  centuries,  has 
fully  maintained  its  productiveness,  the  necessary  result  of  its 
minute  subdivisions  among  intelligent  farmers ;  and  the  two 
latter,  if  properly  managed,  are  capable  of  perpetual  fertility. 
Although  but  a  little  more  than  half  a  century  has  elapsed 
since  these  last  have  been  subject  to  the  white  man,  they 
have,  in  too  many  instances,  already  been  severely  cropped. 
The  writer  has  seen  fields,  which  he  was  assured  have 
yielded  forty-seven  large  successive  crops  of  corn,  and  ex- 
clusively from  their  own  resources.  A  more  careful  tillage, 
however,  is  now  becoming  general. 

The  lower  alluvial  bottoms  that  are  frequently  overflowed, 
and  thus  receive  large  coatings  of  manures,  which  are  fully 
equivalent  to  the  products  taken  off,  are  the  only  soils  which 
will  permanently  sustain  heavy  crops  Avithout  the  aid  of 
man.  Such  are  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the  Ganges,  and 
many  of  our  own  rivers,  Avhich  by  the  overflowing  of  their 
waters  alone,,  have  continued  to  yield  large  annual  burthens; 
the  two  former,  probably  for  more  than  4,000  years ;  but 
they  are  thus  supported,  at  the  expense  of  a  natural  drainage 
of  thousands  of  acres,  which  by  this  means,  are  proportion- 
ally impoverished.  Manures,  then,  in  some  form,  must  be 
considered  as  absolutely  essential  to  sustaining  soils  sub- 
jected to  tillage. 

In  their  broadest  sense,  manures  embrace  every  material, 
which  if  added  to  the  soil,  tends  to  its  fertilization.  They 
are  appropriately  divided  into  organic  and  inorganic ;  the 
first  embracing  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  which  have 
an  appreciable  quantity  of  nitrogen  ;  the  last,  comprehending 
only  such  as  are  purely  mineral  or  earthy,  and  which  in 
general,  contain  no  nitrogen.  These  characteristics  are 
sometimes  partially  blended,  but  they  are  sufficiently  distinct 
for  general  classification. 

Much  pertinacity  has  been  exhibited  by  some  highly  intel- 
ligent minds,  who  should  have  entertained  more  liberal 
views,  as  to  the  peculiar  kinds  of  manures  necessary  to 
support  a  satisfactory  productiveness.  We  have  seen  that 
TuU  maintained,  that  the  deepening  and  thorough  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  soil  ^vas  alone  sufficient  to  secure  perpetual  fer-" 
tility.     But  this  crude  notion,  it  is  evident  to  the  most  super* 

9*- 


34  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

ficjal  modem  reader,  is  wholly  untenable.  Some  agricul- 
turists of  the  present  day,  howi?'/er,  while  they  scout  Tull's 
theory,  (who  was,  nevsrtheless,  a  very  shrewd  man  for  his 
time),  will  yet  claim  as  essential  to  successful  vegetation, 
the  existence  in  the  soil,  of  but  a  part  only  of  the  food  of 
plants.  Thus,  one  asserts  that  the  salts  alone  will  secure 
good  crops  ;  others  maintain  that  the  nitrogenous  substances 
are  the  true  source  of  fertility;  while  still  another  class  refer 
to  the  presence  of  humus  or  geine,  (the  available  product  of 
vegetable  and  animal  decay  in  the  soil),  as  the  only  valuable 
foundation  of  vegetable  nutriment  in  all  manures.  Truth 
and  sound  practice  lie  between,  or  rather  in  the  combination 
of  all  these  opinions. 

It  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding  page  (17th),  that  all 
fertile  soils  must  have  not  less  than  fifteen,  and  more  pro- 
bably sixteen,  different  simple  or  elementary  substances,  in 
various  combinations  with  each  other.  All  of  the  ordinary 
cultivated  plants,  contain  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia, 
alumina,  silica,  oxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  suU 
phuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  chlorine,  and  frequently 
iodine ;  each  of  which,  excepting  the  two  last,  are  in  com- 
bination with  oxygen.  In  addition  to  these,  they  also  have 
carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  Other  substances 
or  ultimate  principles  may  possibly  exist  in  plants,  which 
analysis  may  hereafter  detect,  but  which  have  hitherto  elu- 
ded the  closest  investigation. 

It  is  therefore  obvious,  that  such  principles  as  all  fertile 
soils  furnish  to  vegetables,  must  be  contained  in  manures. 
It  is  no  satisfactory  answer  to  this  position,  to  assert,  that 
numerous  experiments  have  apparently  been  successful,  of 
growing  plants  in  pure  sand  and  water ;  or  with  charcoal 
and  the  salts  added  ;  or  even  that  there  are  some  atmosphe- 
ric plants,  that  fulfill  their  zoophytic  existence  in  air. 
Growth  may  continue  for  a  long  time  under  such  circum- 
stances ;  but  full  maturity  never  arrives,  and  probably 
never  can,  withotit  the  available  presence  in  the  soil,  of 
every  element  xohich  enters  into  the  composition  of  plants. 

Profitable  farming  requires,  that  manures  embodying  al 
these  elements,  should  be  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  the 
soil,  to  develope  fully  and  rapidly,  such  crops  as  are  sought 
from  it.  It  becomes  then,  a  matter  of  the  highest  consequence 
to  the  farmer,  to  understand  not  only  what  substances  may  be 
useful  as  rnac    'es  ;  but  also,  how  r^  api^ly  them  in  the  bes* 


MANURES. 


35 


manner  to  his  urops,  so  far  as  they  can  be  made  profitable. 
We  shall  first  speak  of  the  inorganic  manures. 

ASHES. 

If  any  organic  matter,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  be 
burned,  an  incombustible  substance  remains  behind,  called 
the  ash  or  ashes.  This  varies  in  different  plants,  from  less 
than  one,  to  over  twelve  per  cent,  of  their  whole  weight. 
It  also  varies  with  the  different  soils  upon  which  they  are 
found,  with  the  different  parts  of  the  same  plant,  and  in  the 
different  stages  of  its  maturity.  Thus,  plants  which  grow 
on  peaty  or  low  wet  soils,  give  a  less  proportion  of  ashes  than 
those  which  mature  upon  soils  that  are  dry,  or  rich  in  the  sili- 
cates and  salts.  The  bark,  leaves  and  twigs,  give  much  more 
of  ash  than  the  trunks  of  trees  and  stems  of  plants ;  and  in 
their  early  growth,  they  yield  a  much  larger  proportion  than 
after  they  have  attained  maturity. 

The  following  table,  constructed  from  several  reliable 
sources,  but  principally  from  Spreugel,  arranged  in  part  by 
Johnston,  will  show  the  relative  quantity  of  ashes  found  in 
Bome  of  the  more  important  objects  of  cultivation. 


• 

a 
1 

05 

•a 
o 
tn 

6 

«) 

c 
to 
a 

a 

a 

E 

3, 

o 
'^< 

3 
EC 

o 

o 

J3 

0 

O 

c 

o 
u 

o 

s 

c 

a 

o  <u 

o 

V     . 

is 

Wheat— Gr'n 

2.25 

2.40 

0.96 

0.90 

0.26 

4.00 

0-50 

0.4o!o.l0 

trace 

11.77 

"           St'w 

0.20 

0.29 

2.40 

0.32 

0.90 

28  70 

0.37 

1.70 

0.30 

35.18 

Barley— Gr'n 

2.78 

2.90 

1.06 

1.80 

0.23 

11.82 

.59 

2.10 

0.19 

trace 

23.49 

"           St'w 

1.80 

0.48 

6.54 

0.76 

1.46 

38.56 

MS 

1.60 

0.70 

0.14 

0.20 

52.42 

Oats  —  Grain 

1.50 

1.32 

0.86 

0.67 

0.14 

19.76 

0.35 

0,70 

0  10 

0.40 

25.80 

"         Straw 

8.70 

0.02 

1.52 

0.22 

0.06 

45,88 

0.79 

0,loj0.05 

0.02 

0.02 

57.40 

Rye  —  Grain 

5.3-2 

♦ 

1.22 

0.44 

0.24 

1.64 

0.23 

0.4610.09 

0  42 

0.34 

10.40 

"         Straw 

0.32 

0.11 

1.78 

0.12 

0.26 

22.97 

1.70 

0,51 

0.17 

27.93 

Field)    Bean 

4.15 

8.16 

1.65 

1.5810.34 

1.26 

0  89 

2,92 

0.41 

21.36 

Bean )  Straw 

16.56 

0.50 

6.24 

2.09 

0.10 

2.20 

0.34 

2,26 

0.80 

0.07 

0.05 

31.21 

Field  I       Pea 

8.10 

7.39 

0.58 

1.36 

0.20 

4.10 

0.53 

1.90 

0.38 

0.10 

24.64 

Pea)  Straw 

2.35 

27.30 

3.42 

0.60 

9.96 

3.37 

2.40 

0.04 

0.20 

0.07 

49.71 

Pota-  }  Roots 

4.028 

2.334 

.331 

.324 

.050 

.084 

.540 

.401 

.160 

.032 

8.284 

toes  I    Tops 

8.19 

.09 

12.97 

1.70 

.04 

4.94 

.42 

1.97 

.60 

.02 

30.84 

Tur-  (    Roots 

2.386 

1.048 

.752 

.254 

.036 

.388 

.801 

.367 

.239 

.032 

6.303 

neps  (  Leav'sl  3.23 

Z22 

6.20 

.69 

.03 

1.28 

2.52 

.98 

.87 

.17 

VS.  09 

Carrots            3.533 

.922 

.667 

.384 

.039 

.137 

.270 

514 

.070 

.033 

.060 

6.619 

Parsneps          |2.079 

.J02 

.468    .270 

.024 

.162 

.192 

100 

.178 

.005 

? 

4.180 

Rye  Grass 

8.S1 

3.94 

7.34    0.9010.31 

27.72 

3.53 

0.25 

0.06 

52.86 

Red  Clover 

19.95 

5.29 

27.80 

3.330.14 

3.61 

4.47 

6..57 

3.62 

74.78 

White  Clover 

31.05 

5.79 

23,48 

3.05:190 

14.73 

3.53 

5.06 

2.11 

0.63 

91.32 

Lucern 

13.40 

6.15 

48.31 

3.43030 

3.30 

4.04 

13.07 

3.18 

0.30 

95.52 

Bainfoin          !20  57 

4.37 

21.95    2.8310.66 

5.00 

3.41 

9.16 

1.57 

69.57 

In  the  foregoing  tal::le,  the  grain,  beans,  peas,  straw  and 


^  Included  in  Potaili 


36  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

l.ay  are  estimated  after  they  have  been  dried  in  the  air  th* 
roots  as  they  are  taken  from  the  field.  The  clovers  and 
grass  lose  from  55  to  75  per  cent,  of  their  entire  weight 
when  full  of  sap,  lessening  of  course,  as  they  approach  to 
the  state  of  ripening  their  seed.  The  potato  loses  in  drying, 
69  per  cent,  of  water ;  the  turnep,  91 ;  the  carrot,  S7 ;  the 
turnep  leaf,  86 ;  the  carrot  leaf,  parsnep  and  parsnep  leaf, 
each  81  ;  and  the  cabbage,  93. 

There  is  much  variation  in  the  different  specimens  of  the 
above  substances  subjected  to  examination,  according  to  the 
peculiar  variety,  the  different  circumstances  and  various 
stages  of  their  srrowth.  The  oat  is  the  most  variable  of  the 
grains,  one  specimen  sometimes  containing  three  times  the 
quantity  of  ash  afforded  by  others.  The  roots  also,  sometimes 
vary  as  three  to  one  in  their  quantity  of  ash.  As  the  grain 
and  most  of  the  other  crops  approach  maturity,  the  quan- 
tity of  some  of  the  principles  constituting  the  ash,  lessens, 
as  of  potash  and  soda,  their  presence  being  no  longer  neces- 
sary in  the  sap,  to  aid  the  formation  of  the  various  products 
of  the  plants. 

Later  and  probably  more  accurate  analyses,  give  consider- 
able variations  in  the  relative  quantities  of  the  elements  of 
the  ash  of  different  plants.  Thus,  an  average  of  six  of  these, 
gave  of  peas  with  the  pod,  about  35  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  of  beans,  about  32  per  cent.  But  the  table  is 
given  to  illustrate  principles  in  the  organization  of  plants, 
rather  than  to  define  the  precise  relative  proportions  of  the 
constituents  of  each. 

The  farmer  will  perceive  from  this  table,  the  great  value 
of  ashes  to  his  crops.  The  quantity  seems  small  in  compari- 
son with  the  total  weight  of  the  vegetable  ;  yet  small  as  it 
is,  the  aggregate  of  a  few  years  will  so  far  exhaust  the  soil 
of  one  or  more  of  the  principles  necessary  to  sustain  a  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  that  it  Avill  cease  to  yield  remunerating  re- 
turns. The  annual  exhaustion  of  salts  from  large  crops  of 
grain,  roots  and  grass,  is  from  180  to  more  than  250  lbs.  in 
every  acre  of  soil.  The  ashes  of  vegetables,  consist  of  such 
elements  as  are  always  required  for  their  perfect  maturity, 
and  it  is  evident,  they  must  furnish  one  of  the  best  saline 
manures,  which  can  be  supplied  for  their  growth.  They 
are  to  the  earthy  parts  of  vegetables,  what  milk  is  to  the  ani- 
mal system,  or  iDarn-yard  manures  to  the  entire  crop ;  the) 
contain  every  element,  and  generally  in  the  right  proper 
tipns,  for  ins-zriiig  a  fu.l  and  rapid  gi  pwtU. 


xanub.es.  o7 

Asl  3s  are  also  among  the  most  economical  manures  ,  as 
from  tr.e  free  use  of  fuel  in  the  United  States,  they  are  pro- 
duced by  almost  every  household.  Good  husbandry  dictates, 
that  not  a  pound  of  ashes  should  be  wasted,  but  all  should 
be  saved  and  applied  to  the  land  ;  and  where  they  can  be 
procured  at  a  reasonable  price,  they  should  be  purchased  for 
manure.  Leached  ashes,  though  less  valuable,  contain  all 
the  elements  of  the  unleached,  having  been  deprived  only  of 
a  part  of  their  potash  and  soda.  They  may  be  drilled  into  the 
soil  with  roots  and  grain,  sown  broadcast  on  meadows  or  pas- 
tures, or  mixed  with  the  muck-heap.  They  improve  all  soils 
pot  already  saturated  with  the  principles  which  they  contain. 

The  quantity  of  Ashes  that  should  be  applied  to  the  acre^ 
must  depend  on  the  soil  and  the  crops-cultivated.  Potatoes, 
turneps  and  all  roots ;  clover,  lucern,  peas,  beans,  grain  and  the 
grasses  are  great  exhausters  of  the  salts,  and  they  are  con- 
sequently much  benefitted  by  ashes.  They  are  used  with 
decided  advantage  for  the  above  crops  in  connection  with 
bone-dust ;  and  for  clover,  peas  and  roots,  their  effects  are 
much  enhanced  when  mixed  with  gypsum.  Light  soils 
should  have  a  smaller,  and  rich  lands  or  clays,  a  heavier 
dressing.  From  20  to  30  bushels  per  acre  for  the  former, 
and  50  for  the  latter,  is  a  moderate  application  ;  or  if  they 
are  leached,  the  quantity  may  be  doubled  with  decided  bene- 
fit, as  they  act  with  less  energy.  Repeated  dressings  of  ashes, 
like  those  of  lime  and  gypsum,  without  a  corresponding  ad- 
dition of  vegetable  or  barn-yard  manures,  will  eventually  ex- 
haust tillage  lands  of  their  carbonaceous  and  organic  matters. 

Ashes  may  be  applied  to  meadoiv-lands,  for  a  longer  time 
than  to  any  other  crops,  and  for  this  obvious  reason.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  soil  is  closely  covered  with  vegetable 
agents,  "which  are  actively  employed  in  drawing  carbon  from 
the  air  and  soil,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  stored  up  in  the 
stubble  and  roots,  which  thus  makes  it  less  important  that 
the  organic  matters  should  be  given  back  to  the  soil,  in  the 
shape  of  vegetable  or  animal  manures.  As  an  instance  of 
the  rapidity  with  which  this  operation  goes  forward,  it  has 
been  found,  that  the  dried  roots  and  stubble  of  a  clover-field 
the  second  year,  and  after  one  crop  for  the  first,  and  two 
for  the  second  season  had  been  taken  off,  yielded  56  lbs.  for 
every  100  lbs.  of  the  aggregate  crops  of  hay.  An  old  mea- 
dow has  yielded  400  lbs.  of  roots  for  every  100  of  hay  for 
ihe  season. 

The  carbon  is  cons'.antly  increasing  in  the  soil  of  well- 


38  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

managed  pat; aires,  and  it  also  increases  for  a  t..me  in  mea- 
dows. It  v/ill  continue  to  do  so  for  an  indefinite  period,  if 
the  ashes  of  plants  are  adc'^d  to  the  soil,  nearly  to  the  amount 
of  the  mineral  ingredients  taken  off.  With  this  increase  in 
the  organic  elements  of  vegf  tation,  (if  we  were  certain  that 
nitrogen  is  accvmiulated  in  the  same  ratio,  which  we  are  not), 
It  is  evident  that  the  salts  alone  would  then  be  Avanting  to 
give  the  utmost  luxuriance  ;  and  these  are  found  combined  in 
the  most  convenient  and  generally  the  most  economical 
form  as  ashes.  But  care  is  necessary  that  they  be  not  added 
in  excess. 

Coal  Ashes. — The  bituminous  and  :»^nthracite  coals  afford 
ashes,  and  although  inferior  in  quality  to  those  made  from 
wood  and  vegetables,  are  like  them,  a  valuable  manure,  and 
they  should  be  applied  to  the  land  in  a  similar  manner.  If 
they  contain  many  cinders,  from  not  having  been  thoroughly 
burned,  they  are  more  suited  to  heavy  than  to  light  soils,  as 
they  tend  to  their  mechanical  division,  which  though  benefi- 
cial to  the  former,  are  injurious  to  the  latter. 

Ashes  of  Sea  Weeds  or  Marine  Plants. — When  from 
its  quantity  or'  remoteness,  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry  the 
sea-weed  to  the  soil,  which  abounds  on  most  of  our  sea- 
coasts,  it  can  be  burned ;  when  it  will  be  found  to  yield  a 
large  proportion  of  ash,  which  is  peculiarly  rich  in  soda. 
This  is  of  great  value  to  the  farmer.  Several  species  of  the 
fuci  have  for  a  long  period  been  collected  and  burned  on  the 
northern  coasts  of  Scotland,  Norway  and  the  Baltic,  forming 
an  article  of  commerce  under  the  name  of  kelp.  Its  value 
consisted  in  its  alkaline  properties,  for  which  it  was  much 
used  by  the  glass  and  soap-makers,  the  bleachers,  and  for 
other  uses  in  the  arts.  For  these  purposes,  it  is  now  nearly 
superseded  by  soda  ash,  a  crude  carbonate  of  soda,  extracted 
by  the  decomposition  of  sea-salt ;  and  the  price  it  now  bears 
in  market,  will  bring  it  within  the  reach  of  farmers  for  some 
of  the  economical  purposes  of  husbandry. 

Peat  Ashes. — Nearly  all  peat  approaching  to  purity,  when 
thrown  out  of  its  bed  and  thoroughly  dried,  will  admit  of 
being  burned  to  an  imperfect  ash  ;  and  when  it  does  not 
reach  this  point,  it  will  become  thoroughly  charred,  and  re- 
duced to  cinders.  In  both  of  these  forms,  it  is  a  valuable 
drf?ssing  for  the  soil.  It  is  always  better  for  dry  uplands,  to 
use  the  unburned  peat  after  it  has  been  properly  composted 
in  a,  miuokheap  ;  as  the  organic  matters  which  it  contains, 
and  which  are  expvlled  by  burning,  are  of  great  benefit  to 


MANURES.  '39 

the  soil.  But  when  they  are  remote,  the  peat  may  be  burn- 
id  at  a  trifling'  cost,  and  the  ashes  appUed  with  manifest 
profit.  The  principal  use  hitherto  made  of  them  by  farmers, 
has  been  in  spreading  them  directly  over  the  surface  of  tl:.o 
reclaimed  bed  from  which  they  were  taken. 

LIME. 

Lime  is  the  product  of  limestone,  marble,  chalk,  or  marl, 
after  it  has  been  burned,  or  subjected  to  an  intense  heat.  In 
either  of  the  foregoing  forms,  it  is  a  carbonate,  and  contains 
from  43  to  46  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid,  which 
is  expelled  by  calcination.  After  the  acid  has  been  driven 
off,  it  exists  in  its  quick  or  caustic  state ;  and  in  that  condi- 
tion, its  affinity  for  moisture  and  carbon  is  so  great,  that  it 
greedily  combines  with  both,  on  exposure  to  water,  earth,  or 
even  to  the  atmosphere,  passing  again  into  a  carbonate  and 
hydrate.  It  is  in  these  latter  conditions,  that  it  is  applied  to 
soils  and  miick  heaps.  If  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder, 
(the  condition  in  which  chalks  and  marls  generally  exist,) 
limestone  would  act  with  equal  efficiency  as  if  burnt. 

Lime,  next  to  ashes,  either  as  a  carbonate  or  sulphate,  has 
been  instrumental  in  the  improvement  of  our  soils,  beyond 
any  other  saline  manures.  Like  ashes,  too,  its  application  is 
beneficial  to  every  soil,  not  already  sufficiently  charged 
with  it.  It  makes  heavy  land  lighter,  and  light  land  hea- 
vier ;  it  gives  adhesiveness  to  creeping  sands  or  leachy 
gravel,  and  comparative  openness  and  porosity  to  tenacious 
clays ;  and  it  has  a  permanently  beneficial  effect,  where 
generally  used,  in  disinfecting  the  atmosphere  of  any  noxious 
vapors  existing  in  it.  It  not  only  condenses  and  retains  the 
volatile  gases  brought  into  contact  with  it  by  the  air  and 
rains,  but  it  has  the  further  effect,  of  converting  the  insoluble 
matters  in  the  soil,  into  available  food  for  plants.  It  has 
proved,  in  many  instances,  the  wand  of  Midas,  changing 
everything  it  touched  into  gold.  It  is  the  key  to  the  strong 
box  of  the  farmer,  securely  locking  up  his  treasure  till  de- 
manded for  hi:s  own  use,  and  yielding  it  profusely  to  his  de- 
mands whenever  required.  In  its  influence  in  drying  the 
land,  and  accelerating  the  growth  of  plants,  the  use  of  lime  is 
equivalent  to  an  increase  of  temperature  ;  and  the  farmer 
sometimes  experiences  in  effect,  the  same  benefit  from  it,  as 
if  his  land  were  removed  a  degree  or  two  to  the  south. 
The  influence  of  lirae  in  resuscitating  soils  after  they  have 
been  exbavisted,  lias  been  frequent  and  striking;  and  it  mat 


40  OIERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

be  stated  as  an  in<iontrovertible  truth,  that  wherever  procu* 
table  at  lov/  prices,  lime  is  one  of  the  most  economical  and 
efficient  agents  in  securing  fertility,  within  the  farmer's 
reach. 

It  has  been  falsely  said  to  be  an  exhauster  of  soils  ;  that 
it  enriches  the  fathers  and  impoverishes  the  sons.  So  far  as 
it  gives  the  occupant  of  the  land  the  control  over  its  latent 
fertility,  this  is  true  ;  but  if  he  squanders  the  rich  products 
when  within  his  reach,  it  will  be  his  own  fault.  Lime  gives 
him  the  power  of  exhausting  his  principal ;  if  he  uses 
aught  beyond  the  interest,  his  prodigality  is  chargeable  to 
his  own  folly,  not  to  the  liberality  of  his  agent.  By  the  ad- 
dition of  lime  to  the  soil,  the  insoluble  ingredients  contained 
in  it  are  set  free,  and  they  are  thus  enabled  to  aid  in  the  for- 
mation of  plants  ;  and  larger  crops,  and  of  better  quality, 
are  the  results.  If  these  be  taken  from  the  soil  without  a 
corresponding  return  of  manure,  exhaustion  must  follow. 
In  the  preceding  table,  it  is  seen,  that  lime  constitutes,  in 
all  cases,  only  a  very  minute  part  of  the  entire  plant ;  all  the 
other  ingredients  must  be  added,  or  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
cannot  be  sustained.  But  in  the  very  abundance  of  the 
crops  which  lime  affords,  means  are  jDrovided  for  the  main- 
tainence  of  the  highest  fertility.  If  they  are  consumed  on 
the  farm,  their  manure  should  be  returned  to  the  fields  ;  and 
if  sold,  other  manures  should  be  procured  to  replace  the  sub- 
stances from  ^vhich  they  are  formed. 

A  practice  vs^hich  has  extensively  prevailed  for  many 
years,  in  sections  of  the  eastern  states,  consists  in  alternating 
wheat  and  clover  on  strongly  limed-lands.  The  plan  usu- 
ally adopted,  is  to  give  one  year  to  wheat,  and  one  or  two 
following,to  clover  ;  sometimes  taking  off  the  first  clover  crop 
for  hay,  and  feeding  off  upon  the  ground,  and  plowing  in, 
the  after  growth  for  manure  ;  and  upon  this,  wheat  is  again 
sown.  This  course  has  succeeded  in  bringing  into  fine  con- 
dition, many  unprofitable  fields.  It  may  work  well  for 
years,  but  it  is  nevertheless  faulty  and  improvident.  Lime 
only  is  added  directly  to  the  soil,  but  the  clover  draws  from 
the  air  and  moisture,  whatever  food  it  can  attract  from  them. 
There  remain  to  be  supplied,  potash,  soda,  the  phosphates 
and  silicates,  (which  the  soil  will  soon  cease  to  furnish  suffi- 
cient for  the  wants  of  the  wheat  and  clover  removed),  or 
aterility  must  inevitably  follow^ 

The  best  method  is  to  add  in  some  form,  the  full 
amount  of  all  the  materials  abstracted  by  the  annual  erop 


VIANURES  4 1 

When  this  is  done,  the  jarge  dressing  of  lime  will  retain  the 
accumulating  fertility,  far  beyond  what  the  soil  would  be 
capable  of  were  it  not  for  its  agency ;  and  it  is  in  this  that 
the  great  profit  of  farming  consists. 

Large  crops  only  are  profitable.  The  market  value  of 
many  indifferent  ones,  will  hardly  meet  the  expense  of  cul- 
tivation, and  it  is  only  the  excess  beyond  this,  which  is  pro- 
fit. It  is  evident  that  if  15  bushels  per  acre  of  wheat,  be 
an  average  crop,  and  it  requires  12  bushels  to  pay  all  ex- 
penses of  production,  three  bushels  is  the  amount  of  profit. 
But  if  by  the  use  of  lime  and  ordinary  manures,  the  product 
can  be  raised  to  30  bushels  per  acre,  the  profit  would  be  near 
the  value  of  12  or  15  bushels,  after  paying  for  the  manures. 
Thus  the  advantage  from  good  management,  may  be  five 
times  that  of  neglect.  This  example  is  given  as  illustrating 
a  principle,  and  not  as  an  exact  measure  of  the  difference  be- 
tween limed  and  unlimed  fields. 

Ap2)lication  of  Lime. — Lime  may  be  carried  on  to  the 
ground  immediately  after  burning,  and  placed  in  small  heaps. 
There  it  may  be  left  to  slack  by  rams  and  the  air  ;  after  which 
spread  it  preparatory  to  plowing.  A  good  practice  is  to 
place  it  in  large  piles,  and  cover  it  thickly  with  earth,  which 
gradually  reduces  it  to  powder.  It  may  then  be  carried 
where  it  is  wanted,  and  spread  from  the  cart.  It  is  still  bet- 
ter, Avhen  small  quantities  only  are  wanted,  to  add  it  to  the 
compost,  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  air-slacked,  avoiding 
fermentation,  as  far  as  practicable,  after  it  has  beert  added  ;  as 
its  avidity  for  carbon  expels  the  ammonia,  which  is  the  most 
valuable  of  the  volatile  ingredients  of  the  muck  heap.  A 
thick  coating  of  earth  over  the  whole,  will  arrest  and  retain 
much  of  the  gas  that  Avould  otherwise  escape.  Fresh  burnt 
lime  does  not  act  beneficially  upon  the  crops  during  the  first 
year  of  its  application,  unless  prepareu.  ^  v  adding  it  to  three 
or  four  times  its  bulk  cf  earth,  in  which  condition  it  should 
remain  for  a  long  time.  If  it  be  mixed  with  rich  mold 
when  first  taken  hot  from  he  kiln,  it  will  decompose  or  libe- 
rate the  alkalies  containec  in  the  earth  to  such  a  degree,  as 
to  render  this  compost  a  powerful  manure. 

Nearly  all  limestones  yield  lime  sufficiently  pure  for  agri 
cultural  purposes.  When  required  of  greater  purity,  it  may 
always  be  obtained  by  burning  oysl  sr  shells,  or  others  of  ma- 
rine origin. 

Magnesian  Lime. — Many  of  the  limestones  contain  mag- 
nesia, and  are  called  magnesian  lime      Tlie  effect  of  tliis,  is 


42  AMBR.JAN    AGRICULTURE. 

a  more  energetic  action,  and  where  it  is  found  in  lime,  the 
same  result  will  be  produced  by  the  application  of  a  less 
quantity. 

The  amount  of  Lime  to  he  used,  depends  entirely  on  the 
soil.  Some  fertile  lands  contain  over  30  per  cent,  in  their 
natural  state.  The  large  amount,  of  more  than  600  bushels 
of  lime  per  acre,  has  been  applied  at  one  time,  to  heavy 
clays,  and  such  soils  as  were  full  of  vegetable  mold,  wth  de- 
cided benefit  to  the  land.  But  equally  beneficial  results 
would  have  been  produced,  had  one  half  the  quantity  been 
first  added,  and  50  bushels  every  third  or  fourth  year  subse- 
quently. In  the  United  States,  the  average  for  a  first  dress- 
ing, is  from  50  to  120  bushels  per  acre.  This  may  be  re- 
newed  every  four  or  five  years,  at  the  rate  of  20  to  40  bush- 
els. If  an  overdose  has  been  aj)plied,  time,  or  the  addition 
of  putrescent  or  green  manures,  are  the  only  correctives. 

To  give  lime  its  fullest  etfect,  it  should  be  kept  as  near  the 
surface  as  possible  ;  and  for  this  reason,  it  is  well  to  spread 
it  after  plowing,  takmg  care  to  harrow  it  well  in.  Allow  it 
then  to  remain  in  grass  as  long  as  profitable.  Its  weight  and 
minuteness  give  it  a  tendency  to  sink  ;  and  after  a  few  years 
of  cultivation,  a  large  portion  of  it  will  be  found  to  have  got 
beyond  the  depth  of  its  most  efl^cient  action.  Where  lime 
is  used,  this  tendency  gives  additional  value  to  the  system 
of  imderdraining  and  subsoil  plowing,  which  enables  the 
atmosphere  and  roots  to  follow  it,  thus  prolonging  its  effect, 
and  greatly  augmenting  the  benefit  to  crops.  It  should  be 
fpread  upon  the  ground  immediately  after  taking  off  the  last 
crop,  so  as  to  allow  the  longest  time  for  its  action  before 
the  next  planting. 

Application  to  Meadows. — In  addition  to  its  other  good 
effects,  lime,  like  ashes,  is  useful  to  meadows  in  destroying 
the  mosses,  and  decomposing  the  accmnulated  vegetable 
matters  on  the  surface.  For  this  pm-pose,  it  may  be  spread 
on  them  unmixed,  after  having  first  passed  into  the  state  of 
carbonate  or  effete  lime,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  grass.  If 
no  such  necessity  rsquire  its  use  in  this  form,  it  may  be  com- 
bined advantageously  with  the  muck  and  scattered  broad 
cast  o\'er  the  meadow, 

MARLS. 

Marls  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with  clay, 
sand,  or  loam,  and  frequently  with  sulphate  and  phospnaie 
of  lime      They  ar?  a  useful  app  ica*'.on  to  land  in  proportion 


MANURES  43 

to  the  lime  they  yield  ;  and  when  containing  the  phoephate 
in  addition,  their  value  is  largely  increased.  The  quantity 
that  may  be  advantageously  used,  is  even  more  variable  than 
that  of  pure  lime,  inasmuch  as  the  quality  varies  with  every 
bed  in  which  it  is  found.  They  are  adapted  to  the  improve- 
ment of  all  soils,  unless  such  as  are  already  sufficiently  filled 
with  lime,  and  they  are  more  generally  useful  to  meadows 
<;han  the  pure  carbonate.  Their  benefits  will  be  greatly  en- 
hanced, if  the  clay  marl  be  used  on  light  or  sandy  soils,  and 
sandy  marls  on  clays  and  heavy  lands.  Marl  has  sometimes 
been  applied  at  the  rate  of  200  cubic  yards  per  acre ;  but 
where  it  approaches  to  purity,  and  the  soil  is  in  the  proper 
condition  to  be  benefitted,  even  four  or  five  cubic  yards  may 
be  sufficient  to  produce  the  best  efi'ects.  Circumstances 
alone  must  determine  the  proper  quantity  to  be  used.  Marl 
should  be  carried  out  and  exposed  in  small  heaps,  before 
spreading  on  the  land.  Exposure  to  the  sun,  and  especially 
to  the  frosts  of  winter,  is  necessary  to  prepare  it  for  use. 

Analysis  of  M.arls. — Marls  maybe  readily  analyzed  by 
any  one,  with  a  pair  of  accurate  scales  and  weights  and  a 
large-mouthed  vial.  To  one  part  muriatic  acid,  add  two 
parts  water,  fill  the  vial  to  about  one  third,  and  balance  it 
on  the  scales.  Theji  slowly  add  100  grains  of  the  pulver- 
ized marl,  thoroughly  dried  over  the  fire.  When  the  effer- 
vescence has  subsided,  expel  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  vial, 
by  pouring  off,  or  blowing  into  the  vial  througli  a  reed  or  with 
a  bellows,  its  greater  weight  causing  it  to  retain  its  place 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  air.  Now  add  weights  to  the  oppo- 
site scale  till  balanced,  and  the  deficiency  of  grains  under 
100,  will  show  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  expelled;  and 
as  this  is  combined  in  the  proportion  of  46  to  54  of  qicick  or 
pure  lime,  in  every  100,  the  loss  indicates  46  per  cent,  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime  contained  in  the  marl. 

From  the  frequent  presence  of  phosphate  and  sulphate 
of  lime,  and  sometimes  potash  and  animalized  matters  in 
marls,  this  kind  of  analysis  seldom  indicates  the  value  of  a 
marl  bed  for  agricultural  purposes.  If  its  exact  worth  is  to 
be  ascertained,  there  must  be  a  more  perfect  analysis,  by  an 
experienced  chemist. 

SHELL  SAND. 

This  is  a  calcareous  sand,  sometimes  mixed  with  animal 
matter  and  the  phosphates.  It  abounds  on  some  parts  of  the 
.joast  of  Cornwal.,  and  on  tho  western  shores  of   Scotland, 


44  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

and  Ireland.  It  is  also  found  on  the  coast  of  France,  and 
particularly  in  Brittany,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
trez.  This  produces  prodigious  effects  on  peaty,  clay  and 
other  soils,  to  which  it  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  10  to  15  tons 
per  acre.  It  is  so  much  esteemed  for  the  form"'T,  that  it  is 
sometimes  carried  to  a  distance  of  100  miles.  It  is  proba- 
ble, there  are  similar  deposits  on  the  coast  of  some  of  the  At- 
lantic States,  though  i  am  not  aware  of  its  application  for 
agricultural  objects.  Its  great  value  as  a  top  dressing,  will 
fully  justify  exploration,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  it 
wherever  it  may  exist. 

G^REEN  SAND  MARL. 

There  are  extensive  beds  of  a  green  sand,  (generally 
though  ixTiproperly  termed  marl),  which  run  through  a  sec- 
tion of  New  Jersey,  from  which  farmers  have  derived  an 
astonishing  addition  to  their  crops.  Much  of  it  is  found  by 
analysis,  to  contain  scarcely  an  appreciable  quantity  of 
hme,  but  it  readily  yields  a  large  amount  of  potash,  varying 
from  six  to  15  pel:  cent.  From  a  careful  analysis  of  eight 
different  specimens,  Professor  Rodgers  found  in  it  an  aver- 
age of  10  per  cent,  of  potassa.  The  effect  of  this  applied 
to  the  barren  sands,  which  abound  in  that  neighborhood, 
has  been  so  favorable,  that  lands  which  before  could  be 
bought  for  three  dollars  per  acre,  would  afterwards  bring  $40. 
Several  deposits  of  green  sand  in  the  counties  of  Plymouth 
and  Barnstable,  Mass.,  similar  in  external  appearance  to  the 
foregoing,  were  explored  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  and  speci- 
mens were  analyzed  by  Dr.  Dana,  without,  however,  de- 
tecting any  qualities  of  decided  advantage  to  agriculture. 

GYPSUM-PLASTER  OF  PARIS— OR  SULPHATE  OP  LIME. 

This  is  a  combination  of  lime  with  sulphuric  acid  and  water, 
in  the  proportion  of  28  of  lime,  40  of  acid,  and  18  of  water. 
It  is  frequently  found  in  connection  with  carbonate  of  lime, 
clay,  &c.  The  use  of  gypsum  has  been  attended  with  great 
benefit  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States ;  and  by  many 
of  the  most  experienced  farmers  in  certain  localities,  it  is 
justly  considered  as  indispensable  to  good  farming.  Like 
other  saline,  and  indeed  all  manures,  it  acts  beneficially  only 
on  soils  which  are  naturally  dry,  or  have  been  made  so  by 
artificial  drainage.  It  is  felt  most  on  sands  and  loams ;  but 
generally,  it  is  advantageously  added  to  clay  soils,  requiring 
more  for  the  lat*^ei,  and  for  all  such  as  contain  a  large  pro- 


MANURES.  45 

portion  ot  vegetable  matter.  From  two  pecks  on  sandy,  to 
fifteen  bushels  on  clay  soil,  have  been  applied  per  acre  ;  but 
from  Uvo  to  four  bushels  is  the  usual  quantity. 

The  crops  on  tvhich  it  jvoduces  the  greatest  effect,  are  the 
red  and  white  clover,  lucern  and  sainfoin,  and  the  legumi- 
nous plants,  peas,  beans,  &c.  On  natural  meadows  and  the 
cereal  grains,  it  has  little  perceptible  influence. 

Gypsum  should  be  sown  broadcast  on  meadows,  as  soon  as 
the  first  leaves  have  expanded  in  the  spring.  It  requires  460 
times  its  weight  of  M'ater  to  dissolve  it,  whicli  shows  the  ne- 
cessity of  applying  it  while  the  early  ra'.ns  are  abundant.  For 
corn,  potatoes  and  turneps,  it  is  usually  put  in  with  the  seed, 
or  sprinkled  upon  the  leaves  after  the  first  hoeing ;  and  it  is 
advantageously  applied  in  both  waj^s,  during  the  same  season. 

From  its  great  effect  on  the  clovers,  increasing  them 
sometimes  to  twice,  and  in  rare  instances,  to  thrice  the  quan- 
tity produced  without  it,  it  is  manifest  that  gypsum  is  the 
most  profitable  manure  which  can  be  used,  as  it  can  be  gen- 
erally procured  by  farmers  at  from  $3  to  ^6  per  ton.  Yet 
it  shouici  be  fully  understood,  that  like  lime,  sail,  or  other 
mineral  manures,  it  furnishes  a  part  onl)^  of  the  food  ot 
plants ;  and  like  them  too,  the  addition  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal manures,  is  indispensable  to  secure  permanent  fertility. 

Some  sections  of  this  and  other  countries,  particularly  in 
Great  Britain,  apparently  derive  no  benefit  from  the  applica- 
tion of  gypsum.  This  failure  has  been  variously  ascribed, 
to  there  being  already  enough  in  the  soil,  or  to  the  presence 
of  a  marine  atmosphere.  Its  great  usefulness,  however,  on 
many  parts  of  our  Atlantic  coast,  would  seem  to  require 
some  other  explanation  than  the  last,  as  the  cause  of  its  in- 
efficiency. Experiments  alone  can  determine  the  circum- 
stances which  will  justify  its  application,  and  to  this  test 
should  not  only  this,  but  all  other  practices  rf  the  farmer  be 
rigidly  subjected. 

BOIfES. 

About  33  per  cent,  of  fresh  bone,  consists  of  animal  mat- 
ter, (oil,  gelatine,  &c.,)  from  53  to  56  per  cent,  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  and  tlie  remainder  is  principally  carbonate  of  .ime, 
soda  and  magnesia.  There  is  no  part  of  the  bone  that  is 
not  useful  to  vegetation;  and  it  is  especially  so  to  the  various 
kinds  of  grain,  potatoes,  turneps,  the  clovers,  ]ieas  and 
beans.  The  bones  should  be  crushed  or  ground,  and  hen 
drilled  in  with  the  seed,  or  scaY.ered  broadcast,  at  the  rate  o! 


16  iMERicAN  agricult;  re. 

25  bushels  per  acre.  They  may  be  repeated  in  less  quant, 
lies  every  four  or  five  years,  or  till  the  soil  cecises  to  be  im- 
proved by  them,  when  they  should  be  withheld  till  addition- 
al cropping  shall  have  so  far  exhausted  them,  as  to  justify  a 
further  application. 

Bones  are  generally  boiled  before  using  for  manure,  to 
extract  the  oil  and  glue.  This  does  not  lessen  their  value 
for  agricultural  purposes,  beyond  the  diminution  of  their 
weight,  while  it  hastens  their  action.  They  are  sometimes 
burned,  which  drives  otf  all  the  organic  matter,  leaving  only 
the  lime  and  other  bases,  to  benefit  the  soil.  This  is  a 
wasteful  practice,  though  the  effect  is  more  immediate  on  the 
crops  ;  but  it  is  also  more  transient,  and  they  require  to  be 
more  frequently  renewed. 

Bones  ought  always  to  be  saved ;  and  if  not  practicable 
to  crush  them,  they  may  be  thrown  upon  the  land,  where 
they  will  gradually  corrode  and  impart  their  fertilizing  pro- 
perties. When  partially  decomposed  and  buried  just  beneath 
the  surface,  the  roots  of  the  luxuriant  plants  above,  will 
twine  arovmd  them  in  all  directions,  to  suck  out  the  rich  food 
which  ministers  so  freely  to  their  growth.  Crushed  bones 
are  advantageously  used  Avith  nearly  an  equal  amount  of 
ashes,  or  with  one  third  their  weight  of  gypsum  ;  or  they 
may  very  properly,  be  added  to  the  muck  heap,  where  de 
composition  will  be  hastened,  and  they  will  sooner  be  pre- 
pared to  impart  all  their  fertility  to  the  crops. 

The  effect  of  ground  bones  is  greatly  hastened  and  aug- 
mented by  dissolving  them  in  sulphuric  acid.  This  is  done 
by  placing  the  bones  in  tight  casks  or  large  kettles,  and  then 
addmg  one  third  their  weight  of  acid,  diluted  with  half  its 
weight  of  water.  This  mixture  immediately  raises  the  tem- 
perature to  300°  Far.,  and  decomposition  of  the  bones  soon 
results.  Then  add  to  this  product,  two  or  three  times  its 
bulk  of  light  mold,  and  when  dried,  it  may  be  drilled  in  with 
the  seed  by  a  machine,  or  scattered  broadcast.  Or  a  heap 
of  fine  mold  may  be  formed  like  a  basin,  the  bones  thrown 
into  the  centre  and  the  diluted  acid  added ;  when  dissolved 
all  may  be  mixed  together.  The  whole  nutritive  matter 
contained  in  the  bones,  is  thus  set  free  for  the  use  of  the 
plants,  which  would  otherwise  require  years  to  accomplish, 
from  the  great  insolubility  of  bones.  Less  than  one  fourth 
the  quantity  usually  applied,  will  thus  be  equally  beneficial 
for  the  first  season,  though  the  prolonged  effects  of  the  larger 
quantity  will  be  greater. 


MANURES.  47 

Bones  may  be  dissolved  rapidly,  by  throwing  into  a  com- 
pact heap,  moistening,  and  then  covering  them  with  earth, 
lu  this  condition  they  soon  heat  and  crumble,  and  when  thua 
reduced,  they  may  be  applied  to  the  land. 

PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. 

Tliis  exists  in  a  fossil  state,  and  is  knowTi  in  some  of  its 
forms  as  apatite,  phosphorite,  &c.  An  extensive  quarry  is 
foiuad  in  Estramadura,  Spain  ;  large  beds  of  it  exist  m  vari- 
ous parts  of  England  and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  asso- 
ciated with  carbonate  and  other  forms  of  lime  ;  and  small  de- 
jiosites  of  it  have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  probable,  it  may  yet  be  found  in  such 
localities  and  in  such  abundance,  as  to  be  useful  to  the 
fanner.  It  has  been  shown,  that  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
weight  of  bones  consists  of  pure  phosphate  of  lime  ;  its  value 
for  agricultural  purposes  is  therefore  apparent,  since  the 
I)rincipal  benefit  of  bones  is  derived  from  the  large  propor- 
tion of  phosphate  they  contain. 

SALT-OR  CHLORIDE  OF  SODIUM 

Is  variously  obtained,  either  as  fossil  or  rock  salt ;  from 
boiling  or  evaporation  of  salt  springs ;  and  from  the  waters 
of  the  ocean.  In  a  pure  state,  it  consists  of  60  of  chlorine 
and  40  of  sodium,  in  every  100  parts.  Sodium  chemically 
combined  with  oxygen,  forms  soda ;  and  it  will  be  seen  by 
referring  to  the  table,  (page  35),  that  salt  furnishes  two 
of  the  important  constituents  in  the  ash  of  every  vegetable. 
Its  advantages  to  vegetation  are  to  be  inferred  from  a  know- 
ledge of  its  composition,  and  this  inference  is  fully  corrobo- 
rated by  experience.  The  merits  of  salt  as  a  manure,  were 
imderstood  and  appreciated  by  the  ancients,  and  by  them  it 
\vas  extensively  used  on  their  fields.  It  has  continued  to 
be  employed  for  the  same  purposes,  by  intelligent  agricultu- 
rists to  the  present  time.  On  some  soils,  it  yields  no  appa- 
rent benefit.  Such  as  are  near  the  sea-coast,  and  occasion- 
ally receive  deposits  from  the  salt  spray,  which  is  often 
carried  far  inland  by  the  ocean  storms ;  or  such  as  contain 
chlorine  and  soda  in  any  other  form,  and  in  sufficient  abun- 
dance for  the  wants  of  the  crops,  are  not  affected  by  it.  But 
in  other  situations,  when  used  at  the  rate  of  three  to  sixteen 
bushels  per  acre,  the  crops  of  grains,  roots  or  grasses  have 
been  increased  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  It  may  be  applied 
in  minute  portions  in  the  hill,    or    scattered  bredcast,  oj 


48  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

mixed  \vith  the  muck  heap.  Its  great  aflinity  for  water,  has 
the  eflfect,  like  that  of  gypsum,  of  attracting  dews  and  at- 
mospheric vapor  to  the  growing  vegetation,  but  in  a  still 
greater  degree.  By  this  means,  a  copious  supply  of  moisture 
is  secured  to  those  plants  which  have  been  thus  manured, 
and  far  beyond  what  is  experienced  in  adjoining  fields.  Salt 
is  also  useful  in  destroying  slugs,  worms,  and  larvse,  which 
frequently  do  much  injury  to  the  crops. 

SULPHATE  OrsODA.fGlauber  Salts.)  SULPHATE  GE  MAGNESIA, 
(Epsom  Salt6,)AND    SULPHATE  OF  POTASH. 

These  are  all  useful  raamures,  and  they  act  on  vegetation 
in  a  manner  similar  to  g\-psum.  This  was  to  have  been  ex- 
pected, so  far  as  the  sulphuric  acid  is  concerned,  which  is 
common  to  each ;  but  their  action  is  modified  to  a  certain 
degree,  by  the  influence  which  the  bases  or  alkaline  ingredi 
ents  of  these  several  salts  exert  upon  the  plants.  The  gene- 
rally-increased price  which  they  bear  over  gj'psum,  will  pre- 
vent their  use,  when  remote  from  those  localities  where  they 
exist  in  a  state  of  nature  ;  or  where  they  may  be  procinred 
at  low  rates,  near  the  laborator" "  ^hich  they  are  manu 
factured. 

NITRATE  OF  POTASH,  ^Saltpetre,)  AND  NITRATE  OF  SODA. 

These  are  both  extensively  found  in  a  crude  state  in  na- 
tive beds,  or  as  an  efflorescence  ;  and  in  this  condition,  they 
can  frequently  be  bought  at  a  price  that  will  justify  their 
use.  The  first  contains  potash,46.o,  and  nitric  acid, 53. 5  ;  the 
second,  in  its  dry  state,  soda, 36.5,  and  nitric  acid, 63.5,  in 
every  100  parts.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  tried 
with  them  on  various  crops;  but  they  have  not  thus  far,  af- 
forded very  accurate  or  satisfactory  results.  In  general,  they 
give  a  darker  color  and  more  rapid  growth,  and  they  in- 
crease the  weight  of  clover,  the  grasses  and  the  straw  of 
grain  ;  and  the  forage  is  also  more  relished  by  cattle.  But 
in  the  average  effects  upon  grain  and  roots,  the  statements 
are  too  much  at  A^ariance  to  deduce  any  well-settled  princi- 
ples, which  we  might  safely  assume  as  a  reliable  guide  to  the 
practical  agriculturist.  From  the  decidedly  beneficial  ef- 
fects produced  in  numerous  instances,  may  we  not  reasona- 
bly infer,  that  they  have  generally  been  successful  where 
there  has  been  a  deficiency  of  them  in  the  soil  ? 

As  a  soak  or  steep  for  seeds,  and  especially  when  dis- 
solved and  added  to  the  bed  where  they  are  planted,  there 
is  no  doubt  of  their  possessing  some  value  in  giving  an  early 


MANURES  49 

and  vigorous  growth  to  most  seeds,  besides  securing  them 
from  the  depredation  of  insects  and  marauders  of  various  kinds. 
This  enables  them  rapidly  to  pusli  forward  their  roots,  stems 
and  leaves  ;  thus  obtaining  a  greater  range  for  the  roots,  and 
more  mouths  for  the  leaves  to  draw  their  nourishment  from 
the  atmosphere,  by  which  vegetation  is  accelerated,  and 
where  the  period  for  maturity  is  limited,  materially  increasing 
the  product. 

CARROKTATES,  NITRATES,  SULPHATES,  PHOSPHATES,  SILICATES, 

ANY>  CHLORIDES. 

Several  of  these  have  just  been  particularly  enumerated. 
The  remainder  are  composed  of  carbonic,  nitric,  sulphuric 
and  phosphoric  acids,  silica  and  chlorine,  in  chemical  com- 
bination Avith  potash,  soda,  lime  and  the  other  bases  or 
ash  of  plants.  Although  no  one  of  these  can  fail  to  benefit 
crops,  when  rightly  applied,  yet  the  expense  of  most  of 
them,  will  prevent  their  extended  use.  This  can  only  be 
looked  for,  from  those  which  are  procurable  at  a  cheap  rate. 
The  chemical  laboratories,  glass  Avorks,  and  some  other 
manufactories,  afford  in  their  refuse  materials,  more  or  less 
of  these  mineral  manures,  \vhich  would  well  repay  the 
farmer  for  removing  and  applying  to  his  land.  The  most 
obvious  that  occur  in  this  country,  are  all  that  will  be  here 
mentioned. 

OLD  PLASTER. 

This  is  a  true  silicate  of  lime  ;  being  formed  mostly  ct 
siliceous  sand  and  lime,'  chemically  combined.  For  mea» 
dows,  and  for  most  other  crops,  especially  on  clays  and 
loams,  this  is  worth  twice  its  weight  in  hay ;  as  it  will  pro- 
duce a  large  growth  of  grass  for  years  in  succession,  and 
without  other  manure.  This  efi'ect  is  due,  not  only  to  the 
lime  and  sand,  but  to  the  nitric  acid  which  they  have  ab- 
stracted from  the  atmosphere,  and  which  they  continue 
alternately  (while  in  combination)  to  absorb  from  the  air 
and  give  out  to  the  growing  plant.  But  the  farmer  cannot 
too  carefully  remember,  that  with  this,  as  with  all  other 
saline  manures,  but  a  part  of  the  ingredients  only  is  thus 
supplied  to  vegetables ;  and  without  the  addition  of  the 
'^thers,  the  soil  will  sooner  or  later  become  exhausted. 

BROKEN  BRICK  AND   BURNT  CLAY. 

These  are  composed  mostly  of  silicate  of  alumma,  but  they 
are  generally  mixed  with  a  small  quantitv  of  silicate  of  pot 
3 


50  AMERICAN    AGRICtJ:  TVRE. 

ash  and  other  substance?.  They  are  of  much  value  as  a 
top-dressing  for  meadows.  In  addition  to  their  furnishing 
in  themselves,  a  minute  quantity  of  the  food  of  plants,  like 
old  plaster,  they  serve  a  much  more  extended  purpose,  by 
condensing  ammonia,  nitric  and  carbonic  acid,  which  they 
give  up  to  the  demands  of  vegetation.  They  seem  to  fulfil  the 
same  part  as  conductors,  between  the  nutritive  gases  that 
abound  in  the  atmosphere  and  the  vegetables  which  they 
nourish,  as  the  lighrning  rods  in  leading  the  electricity 
from  the  clouds  to  the  earth. 

CHARCOAL. 

When  charcoal  is  scattered  over  the  grou.-l,  it  produces 
the  same  effect  as  the  foregoing,  and  probably  in  a  greater 
degree ;  as  it  absorbs  and  condenses  t-lie  va'"'ous  gases 
within  its  pores,  to  the  amount  of  from  20  to  over  80  times 
its  own  bulk.  The  economy  and  benefit  of  such  applica- 
tions, can  be  readily  understood,  as  they  are  continually 
gleaning  these  floating  materials  from  tlie  air,  and  storing 
'.hem  up  as  food  for  plants.  Charcoal  as  well  as  lime,  often 
checks  rust  in  wheat,  and  mildew  in  other  crops ;  and  in  all 
cases,  mitigates  their  ravages,  where  it  does  n^t  wholly 
prevent  them. 

BROKEN  GLASS 

Is  a  silicate  of  potash  or  soda,  according  as  either  of  these 
alkalies  are  used  in  its  manufacture.  Silicate  of  potnsh, 
(silex  and  potash  chemically  united,)  is  that  material  in 
plants,  which  constitutes  the  flinty,  exterior  coating  of  the 
grasses,  straw,  cornstalks,  &c.  ;  and  it  is  found  in  varying 
quantity  in  all  plants.  I^  is  most  abundant  in  the  bamboos, 
cane,  Indian  corn,  tlie  stings  of  nettles,  and  the  prickly 
spikes  in  burs  and  thistles.  Some  species  of  the  marsh- 
grasses  have  these  silicates  so  finely,  yet  firmly  adjusted, 
like  saw-teeth,  on  their  outer  edges,  as  to  cut  the  flesh  to  the 
bone  when  drawn  across  the  finger.  Every  farmer's  boy 
has  experienced  a  yet  more  formidable  weapon,  in  the  sli- 
vers from  a  cornstalk. 

It  is  to  the  absence  of  this  material  in  peats  and  such  other 
soils,  as  have  an  undue  proportion  of  animal  or  vegetable 
manures,  that  we  may  attribute  the  imperfect  maturity  of 
the  grains  and  cultivated  grasses  grown  upon  them,  causing 
them  to  crinkle  and  fall,  from  the  want  of  adequate  support 
to  the  steni  ,  and  it  is  to   the^  .•  excess   in  sandy  and  cal- 


MANURES.  61 

careous  soils,  that  the  straAV  is  always  firm  a..A  upright, 
whatever  may  be  the  weight  of  the  bending  ear  at  the  top. 
By  a  deficiency  of  silicates,  we  mean,  that  they  do  not  exist 
in  a  soluble  form,  which  is  the  only  state  in  wliich  plants 
can  seize  upon  aiii  appropriate  them.  The  efforts  of  some 
roots  in  procuring  this  indispensable  food,  have  been  so  irre- 
sistible, as  to  have  decomposed  the  glass  vessels  in  which 
they  have  been  grown.  Before  using  it  as  a  manure,  the 
glass  shouH  be  reduced  to  powder  by  grinding. 

CRUSHED  MICA,  FELDSPAR,  LAVA,  THE  TRAP  ROOKS,  &c. 

Feldspar  contains  66.75  of  silica;  17.50,  alumina;  12, 
potash  ;  1.25,  lime  ;  and  0.75,  oxide  of  iron.  Mica  consists 
of  silica,  46.22;  ahmiina,  34.52;  peroxide  of  iron,  6.04, 
potash,  8.22;  magnesia  and  manganese,  2.11.  Most  of  the 
lavas  and  trap-rocks  hold  large  quantities  of  potash,  lime, 
and  other  fertilizing  ingredients.  The  last  frequently  form 
the  entire  soils  in  volcanic  countries,  as  in  Sicily,  and  around 
Mount  Vesuvius  in  Italy,  in  tlie  Azores  and  Sandwich 
Islands  ;  and  their  A'alue  for  grains  and  all  cultivated  plants, 
is  seen  in  the  luxuriance  of  their  crops  and  the  durability  of 
their  soils.  These  examples  illustrate  the  great  influence 
of  saline  manures,  and  their  near  approach  to  an  entire  in- 
dependence in  sustaining  vegetation.  Whenever  they  be- 
come exhausted  by  the  severe  usage  they  undergo,  two  or 
three  years  of  rest  enables  them  again  to  yield  a  remune- 
rating crop  to  the  improvident  husbandman. 

Granite,  sienite,  and  some  other  rocks,  yielding  large 
proportions  of  potash  and  some  lime,  abound  throughout 
the  eastern  portion  of  this  country.  The  potash  in  them,  is 
however,  firmly  held  in  an  insoluble  state  ;  but  if  they  are 
subjected  to  a  strong  heat,  they  may  then  be  easily  crushed, 
when  they  yield  the  potash  freely  by  solution.  In  this  con- 
dition, they  constitute  a  valuable  top-dressing  for  almost 
every  soil  and  crop. 

It  is  a  subject  of  frequent  remark,  that  the  soil  underneath, 
or  in  immediate  contact  Avith  certain  Avails,  which  have 
been  erected  for  a  long  period,  is  much  richer  than  the  ad- 
joining parts  of  the  same  fields.  This  difference  is  probably 
due,  in  some  measure,  to  the  slow  decomposition  of  import- 
ant fertilizers  in  the  stone,  which  are  washed  dov/n  by  the 
rains,  and  become  incorporated  in  the  soil.  The  removal  of 
stones  from  a  fertile  field,  has  been  deprecated  by  many  an 
observing  farmer,  as  materially  impairing  it v  productiveness. 


52  america:<   a.  »riculture. 

In  addition  to  the  shade  afforded  by  them  agair^st  an  intense 
6nn  and  protection  from  cold  %vinds,  their  influence  in  con- 
densing moisture,  and  the  beneficial  effects  which  perhaps 
ensue,  as  in  fibrous  covering,  the  difference  may  be  attribut- 
able to  the  same  cause. 

SPENT  LYE   or  THE  ASHERIES 

Is  the  liquid  which  remains,  after  the  combination  of  the 
lye  and  grease,  in  manufacturing  soap.  It  is  of  great  value 
for  plants.  Before  applying  it  to  the  land,  it  should  be 
mixed  with  peat  or  turf,  or  diluted  with  ten  times  its  bulk  of 
water.  Five  gallons  of  this  lye,  is  estimated  to  contain  as 
much  potash  or  soda,  according  as  either  is  used,  a?  would 
be  furnished  by  three  barrels  of  ashes.  It  has  besides,  a 
large  quantity  of  nitrogen,  the  most  valuable  ingredient  of 
animal  manure,  which,  by  judicious  application,  is  either 
converted  into  ammonia,  or  serves  the  same  purpose  in  yield- 
ing nutrition  to  plants. 

AMMONIACAIi  LIQUOR  (from  the  gas  hoixses). 

This  liquid  is  the  residuum  of  bituminous  coal  and  tar  used 
m  making  gas,  and  holds  large  quantities  of  nitrogen,  from 
which  ammonia  is  frequently  extracted.  When  used  for 
laud  near  by,  it  may  be  carried  to  the  muck  heap  in  barrels ; 
and  Vviien  at  remote  distances,  gypsum  or  charcoal  dust  may 
be  added  to  the  barrel,  stirrmg  it  well  for  some  time,  and 
then  closely  covering  i»^.  The  gypsum  and  charcoal  soon 
combine  with  the  ammonia,  when  the  liquid  may  be  drawn 
off,  and  the  solid  contents  removed.  It  is  a  powerful  manure 
and  shotild  be  sparingly  used. 

GUANO. 

GuaTio  is  derived  exclusively  irom  the  animal  creation; 
but  from  its  existence  in  a  highly-condensed  state,  and  in 
combination  with  large  proportions  of  the  salts,  and  having, 
by  its  accumulation  through  thousands  of  years,  lost  the  dis- 
tinguishmg  characteristics  of  recent  animal  matter,  it  may 
be  almost  considered  as  a  fossil,  and  as  properly  enough 
classed  under  the  head  of  inorganic  manures.  It  is  the  re- 
mains of  the  excrements,  food  and  carcasses  of  innumerable 
flocks  of  marine  birds  and  seals,  Avhich  have  made  some  of 
the  islands  in  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans,  places  of  resort 
for  rearing  their  young,  through  unknown  ages. 

Peruvian  Guano  is  fotmd  on  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 


MANTRES. 


5b 


near  the  coast  of  Peru  and  some  of  the  headlands  on  the  adja- 
cent shores,  between  latitudes  13°  and  21°  South.  It  is  here 
deposited  to  the  depth,  sometimes,  of  50  or  60  feet.  Within 
the  degrees  above  named,  rain  seldom  falls;  and  there  is 
little  waste,  either  of  the  substance  or  quality  of  these  vast 
accumulations,  from  the  lapse  of  time  or  the  action  of  the 
elements. 

The  water-fowl  which  resort  to  this  coast  and  the  islands 
near  it,  subsist  principally  on  fish  ;  and  their  feces  are  con- 
sequently, much  richer  in  nitrogen  than  those  of  any  species 
of  the  feathered  tribes,  excepting  such  as  are  exclusively 
carniverous. 

Peruvian  guano  is  of  a  light,  browi.  color,  resembling  the 
yellowish  earths  or  loam ;  and  it  is  beyond  all  comparison,  su- 
perior to  any  other  guano  yet  discovered,  or  than  other 
manures  hitherto  known.  The  following  average  analysis 
of  Dr.  Ure,  shows  that  this  description  of  guano,  contains  the 
important  and  rarer  portions  of  animal  manure,  in  propor- 
tions far  beyond  that  of  any  animal  matter  in  its  natural 
combinations.     In  every  100  parts,  there  are,  of 

Organic  matter  containing  nitrogen,  including  urate 
of  ammonia,  and  capable  of  affording  from  8  to  17  per 
cent,  of  ammonia  by  slow  change  in  the  soil, 50 

Water  11.     Phosphate  of  lime  25 36 

Ammonia,  phosphate  of  magnesia,  phosphate  of  am- 
monia and  oxalate  of  ammonia,  containing  from  4  to  9 
per  cent,  of  ammonia, 13 

Silicious  matter  from  the  crops  of  birds, 1 

Its  character,  as  correctly  indicated  by  such  an  analysis  as 
the  above,  and  which  is  fully  sustained  by  the  astonishing, 
and  generally  profitable  results  that  follow  its  application 
has  rendered  it,  though  of  recent  introduction,  one  of  the 
most  popular  manures,  both  in  America  and  Europe.  It 
has  been  known  and  appreciated  by  the  Peruvians  from 
time  immemorial ;  and  by  its  liberal  use  alone,  combined 
with  irrigation,  they  have  for  ages,  produced  the  most  abun- 
dant crops  of  Indian  corn  and  wheat.  It  was  scarcely 
known  in  Europe  till  1840.  Extensive  experiments  were 
then  made  with  it  in  Great  Britain.  These  were  so  satis- 
factory, that  over  375,000  tons  have  since  been  imported  mto 
that  country  in  a  single  year, 

African  or  Ichaboe  and  Fatagonian  Guano  have  been 
brouofht  into  this  conntrv  to  a  limited  amount.     They  have 


54  AMERICAN   AGKICULTURE, 

been  used  with  some  advantage,  but  theii  value  is  far  below 
that  of  the  Peruvian. 

The  first  introduciio7i  ofGiuxno  into  this  country,  was  in 
1825.  It  was  used  in  a  few  gardens  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  then  forgotten.  Soon  af'.^r  its  succ^essful  appearance  in 
England,  its  importa  ;ion  was  commenced  in  the  United  States. 
Owing  to  the  diminished  value  of  our  agricultural  products 
as  compared  with  those  of  England,  the  progress  of  our  im- 
portation has  been  slow ;  but  it  has  been  steadily  advancinjr. 
and  will  probably  reach  the  amount  of  20,000  tons  for  the 
ensuing  year  (1850).  It  already  occupies  the  rank  of  a 
staple  import ;  and  its  constantly-increasing  use  hereafter, 
along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  borders  of  t^e  United  States, 
may  with  certainty  be  predicted. 

Giiano  is  ajjplied  upon  nearly  all  crops  and  soils ;  but  it 
is,  perhaps,  most  suited  to  such  of  the  latter,  as  approach  to 
sandy  loams.  "  From  200  to  500  pounds  per  acre,  is  a  proper 
dressing,  the  largest  quantity  being  required  for  the  more 
sterile  soils.  It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  for  a  few  days, 
with  five  times  its  bulk  of  vegetable  mold  or  loam,  and  some 
charcoal  or  gypsum,  after  breaking  the  lumps  and  sifting  in 
alternate  layers.  Avoid  the  use  of  lime  or  ashes  in  the  com- 
post, as  they  tend  to  expel  the  ammonia  ;  and  keep  it  under 
cover,  beyond  the  reach  of  w^ater  or  rains  till  used.  It  may 
then  be  scattered  broadcast,  upon  meadows  or  grain,  or 
placed  near  the  seeds,  or  young  plants  in  the  hill.  A  double 
application  has  been  attended  with  the  best  effects ;  tht 
earliest,  producing  a  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  of  stalk,  and 
a  later  one,  filling  out  the  grain,  far  beyond  what  could  have 
otherwise  been  expected.  The  white  or  small  grains,  corn, 
potatoes  and  other  roots,  melons  and  other  fruits,  flowers, 
&c.,&c.,  are  all  susceptible  of  the  presence  of  guano,  and  are 
greatly  benefited  by  it,  whenever  there  is  sufficient  moisture, 
fully  to  develope  its  ingredients. 

When  used  for  steeps,  one  pound  of  guano  is  added  to 
ten  or  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  then  stirred  well  together 
and  closely  covered,  (to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  ammonia,) 
for  24  hours  or  more,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  In 
watering  the  plants,  avoid  sprinkling  the  liquid  upon  the 
stems  or  leaves,  or  it  may  burn  or  injure  the  plants.  Tue 
surface  should  be  freshly  stirred,  to  admit  the  liquid  near  the 
roots. 

As  a  soak  for  seeds  previous  to  planting  or  sowing,  it  is 
frequently  of  great  benefit  \xi  hastening  germination  and  pro 


MANURES. 


8d 


motiug  growth ;  but  great  care  should  be  used  that  it  be  not 
made  too  strong. 

SOOT. 

Like  ashes,  soot  has  its  origin  exclusively  from  vegetables, 
but  may,  with  them,  be  properly  treated  under  the  present 
head.  It  holds  ammonia,  charcoal  and  other  important  fer- 
tilizers, and  is  used  at  the  rate  of  50  to  200  bushels  per  acre. 
Soot  produces  its  greatest  effects  in  moist  weather,  and  in  dry 
seasons  it  has  sometixnes  proved  positively  injurious.  I* 
may  be  sown  broadcast  over  the  field,  and  harrowed  in  ;  or 
mixed  with  such  other  manures  in  the  muck  heap,  as  are  in- 
tended for  immediate  use.  The  ammonia  has  a  great  ten- 
dency to  escape,  which  can  only  be  prevented  by  adequate 
absorbents,  such  as  peat,  muck,  rich  turf,  tan  bark  or  other 
vegetable  remains.  Many  experiments  made  with  it,  have 
proved  contradictory.  In  some,  it  has  been  .shown  to  be 
useless  for  clovers ;  while  it  has  proved  of  great  service  to 
several  of  the  grasses.  Salt,  when  mixed  with  it,  enhances 
its  effects.  In  an  experiment  made  in  England  with  pota- 
toes, on  three  separate  acres  of  land  of  equal  quality,  one 
■without  manure  gave  160  bushels;  one  manured  with  30 
bushels  of  soot  yielded  196;  and  the  third,  which  received 
the  same  quantity  of  soot  and  seven  bushels  of  salt,  yielded 
236.  The  salt  insures  for  it  that  degree  of  moisture,  which 
is  prcbabl)'  essential  to  its  most  beneficial  action. 


56  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE, 


CHAPTER  III 


ORGANIC    MANURES. 

THE    PRINCIPLES    CONSTITUTING   ANIMAL  AND   VEaETABLB— 
PUTRESCENT  OR  ORGANIC  MANURES. 

From  the  table  in  the  foregoing  pages  on  the  ashes  of 
plants,  it  is  shown,  that  in  burning  dried  vegetables,  they 
lose  from  about  95  to  99  per  cent,  of  their  whole  weight. 
The  matter  that  has  been  expelled  by  heat,  consists  of  four 
substances  or  ultimate  principles  ;  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen,  of  Avhich  carbon  makes  up  from  40  to  50  per 
cent.,  or  about  one  half  of  the  whole. 

Carbon  constitutes  all  of  charcoal  but  the  ash ;  nearly 
all  of  mineral  coal,  and  plumbago  or  black  lead  ;  and  even 
the  brilliant  diamond  is  but  another  form  of  carbon.  The 
properties  and  uses  of  carbon  are  various  and  important ; 
its  agency  in  the  growth  of  plants  alone,  concerns  us  at  the 
present  time. 

Carbonic  Acid. — When  any  matter  containing  carbon  is 
burned,  its  ultimate  particles  or  atoms  combine  with  the 
oxygen  which  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  and  form  carbonic 
acid,  consisting  by  weight,  of  six  of  the  former  and  sixteen 
of  the  latter.  When  animals  inhale  air  into  their  lungs,  a 
similar  union  takes  place  ;  the  carbon  contained  in  the  sys- 
tem being  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  lungs,  and  after 
uniting  with  the  oxygen,  is  expelled  as  carbonic  acid.  Pure 
limestone  or  marble  loses  46  per  cent,  of  its  weight  by 
burning  ;  and  all  of  this  loss  is  carbonic  acid,  which  the 
lime  slowly  absorbs  again  on  exposure  to  the  aii,  or  to  such 
substances  as  contain  it.  It  is  evolved  by  fermentation  ;  and 
if  the  surface  of  a  brewer's  vat  in  full  activity,  be  closely 
observed  in  a  clear  light,  it  may  be  seen  falling  over  the 
edges,  when  it  is  gradually  absorbed  by  the  air.  Its  dersity 
is  such,  that  it  may  be  poured  from  one  open  vessel  'nto 
another,  withou*  material  loss.     It  is  this  which  gives  to 


CROANIC    MANURES.  67 

artificial  soda  water  and  to  mineral  springs,  (as  the  Sara- 
toga,) their  sparkling  appearance  and  acid  flavor.  It 
abounds  in  certain  caves,  stinken  pits,  and  wells,  which  de- 
stroy animal  life,  not  from  any  intrinsic  poisonous  qualities, 
but  from  its  excluding  oxygen,  which  is  essential  to  respi- 
ration. And  it  is  from  the  same  cause,  that  death  ensues 
to  such  as  are  confined  in  a  .  "nse  room  where  charcoal  is 
burnt. 

This  acid  is  an  active  and  important  agent  in  the  inces- 
sant changes  of  nature.  It  is  everywhere  formed  in  vast 
quantities,  by  subterranean  fires  and  volcanoes.  Though 
heavier  than  atmospheric  air,  it  mingles  with  it,  and  is  car- 
ried as  high  as  examinations  have  yet  been  made,  consti- 
tuting in  bulk,  about  one  part  in  1,000  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  something  more  than  this  in  weight.  Gay  Lussac 
ascended  in  a  balloon  21,735  feet,  and  there  filled  a  bottle 
with  air,  which  analysis  showed  to  be  identical  in  composi- 
tion with  that  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Carbon  is  one 
of  the  great  principles  of  vegetation,  and  it  is  only  as  car- 
bonic acid,  that  it  is  absorbed  by  the  roots,  leaves  and  stems 
of  vegetables,  and  by  them  is  condensed  and  retained  as 
solid  matter. 

Oxygen,  hj'^drogen  and  nitrogen,  when  uncombined  with 
other  substances,  exist  only  as  gases.  The  first  makes  up 
nearly  one  half  of  all  the  substances  of  the  globe  ;  and  with 
the  exception  of  chlorine  and  iodine,  it  constitutes  a  large 
part  of  every  material  in  the  ash  of  plants.  It  forms  rather 
over  21  per  cent,  by  measure,  and  23  by  weight,  of  the  whole 
atmosphere  ;  and  about  eight  parts  out  of  nine,  by  weight,  of 
water,  hydrogen  making  up  the  remaindep-.  It  is  absorbed 
and  changed  into  new  pioducts  by  the  respiration  of  animals, 
and  it  is  au  essential  agent  in  combustion.  Oxides  are  com- 
posed of  it,  in  union  with  the  metals  and  alkalies ;  and  most 
of  the  acids,  when  it  is  combined  with  other  substances,  as 
nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Its  presence,  indeed,  is 
almost  itniversal,  and  the  agency  which  it  exerts  in  vegeta- 
ble nutrition,  is  among  the  most  varied  and  intricate  mani- 
fested in  vegetable  life. 

Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  of  all  the  gases.  It  is  but  n 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  re  the  weight  of  oxy- 
gen ;  and  from  its  great  levity,  it  is  used  for  filling  balloons 
On  applying  a  lighted  taper,  when  brought  into  contact 
with  atmospheric  air,  it  burns  with  a  light  flame,  the  corn- 
bustion  forming  water. 
3* 


A8  A^rERiCAN  agricul:  jre. 

It  is  largely  evolved  from  certain  springs,  in  connection 
witli  carbon  or  sulphur.  This  is  called  carburetled  and  sul 
phuretted  hydrogen,  an  offensively  pungent  and  inflamma- 
ble gas.  So  abundantly  is  this  emitted  from  the  earth  in 
some  places,  that  it  is  used  fo:  economical  purposes.  The 
inhabitants  in  the  village  of  Fi  edonia,  New  York,  light  their 
buildings  with  it ;  and  some  of  the  salt  manufacturers  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  apply  it  to  evaporating  the  water  of 
the  saline  springs.  Carburetted  hydrogen  is  the  gas  now 
employed  for  lighting  cities.  It  is  manufactured  from  oils, 
fat,  tar,  rosin  and  bituminous  coal,  all  of  which  yield  large 
quantities  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Both  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  are  entirely  consumed  with  a  briiliant  light,  when 
inflamed  and  exposed  to  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
is  the  residuum  of  the  volatile  portion  of  these  substances, 
after  driving  off  the  gas,  which  makes  the  ammoniacal 
liquor  so  useful  as  a  manure ;  all  the  nitrogen,  with  a  part 
of  the  hydrogen,  remaining  in  the  liquid.  In  combination 
with  chlorine,  one  of  the  elements  of  salt,  it  constitutes  the 
muriatic,  one  of  the  strongest  of  the  acids. 

Ammonia. — The  most  frequent  condition  in  which  hy- 
drogen is  mentioned,  in  connection  with  vegetation,  besides 
water,  is  when  combined  with  nitrogen,  in  the  proportion  of 
three  of  the  former  in  bulk,  to  one  of  the  latter  ;  and  by 
weight,  17.47  of  the  first,  to  82.53  of  the  last,  in  every  100 
parts,  composing  the  volatile  alkali,  ammonia,  which  is 
about  xs  the  density  of  the  atmosphere.  By  strong  com- 
pression at  a  low  temperature,  it  may  be  condensed  to  a 
liquid,  having  rather  more  than  f  the  specific  weight  of 
water.  It  is  never  found  in  a  tangible  shape,  except  in 
combination  with  acids,  formimg  carbonates,  nitrates,  sul- 
phates, and  muriates  of  ammonia. 

Nitrogen  exists  in  the  atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  about 
79  per  cent.  The  principal  purpose  it  appears  to  fulfil  in 
this  connection,  is  in  diluting  the  oxygen,  which  in  its  pure 
state,  acts  with  too  great  intensity  on  animal  life,  in  com- 
bustion, and  all  its  varying  combinations.  So  great  is  the 
attraction  of  undiluted  oxygen  for  iron,  that  a  wire,  plunged 
into  a  jar  of  oxygen  gas  and  ignited  by  a  taper,  will  readily 
take  tire  and  melt  into  irregular  drops.  This  is  nothing 
more  than  an  illustration  of  the  principle,  exhibited  in  an 
intense  degree,  in  the  gradual  rusting  which  takes  place  in 
the  air  at  its  ordinal  y  temperature ;  or  the  more  rapid  for- 
mation of  the  scales  under  the  heat  of  the  blacksmith's  forgo. 


OaGANIC    MANURES.  69 

AH  are  simple  oxidations  of  the  metal,  or  the  combination 
of  oxygen  with  iron ;  and  we  see  in  the  comparison,  the 
immensely-accelerated  effect  produced  by  the  absence  of 
nitrogen  and  an  augmented  temperature. 

Nitric  acid  is  another  compound  of  great  importance  to 
vegetation.  It  is  simply  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  the  identical 
materials  which  compose  the  atmosphere,  combined  in  differ- 
ent proportions,  26.15  parts  by  weight  of  the  former,  and 
73.85  of  the  latter,  in  every  100.  This  acid,  in  union  with 
potash,  forms  nitrate  of  potash  or  saltpetre ;  and  with  soda, 
forms  nitrate  of  soda.  The  last  is  found  in  immense  beds, 
and  lies  upon  and  immediately  under  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
in  China,  India,  Spain  and  elsewhere.  From  Cniliit  is  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities  ;  and  has  been  of  late  years,  exten- 
sively used  in  Ezigland,  as  a  manure. 

It  has  been  deemed  relevant  to  our  subject,  to  say  thus  much, 
respecting  some  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  those 
four  simple  principles,  which  make  up  an  average  of  more 
than  98  per  cent,  of  all  living  vegetables.  And  here,  a  mo- 
ment's reflection  irresistibly  forces  from  us,  an  expression  of 
wonder  and  admiration  at  that  Wisdom  and  Omnipotence, 
which,  out  of  such  limited  means,  has  wrought  such  varied 
and  beautiful  results.  Every  plant  that  exists,  from  the  ob- 
scure sea-weed  100  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the' ocean, 
to  the  lofty  pines  that  shoot  up  300  feet  in  mid-air ;  and 
from  the  clinging  moss  that  seems  almos^t  a  part  of  the  rock 
on  which  it  grows,  to  the  expanded  banyan  tree  of  India,  with 
its  innumerably-connected  trunks,  overshadowing  acres ; 
every  thing  that  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  delightful  to  the  eye, 
and  grateful  to  the  smell,  equally  with  whatever  is  nauseous, 
revolting  and  loathsome,  are  only  products  of  the  same  ma- 
terials, slightly  differing  in  association  and  arrangement. 

BARN-TAKD  MANURE. 

The  first  consideration  in  the  management  of  manures  is, 
to  secure  them  against  all  waste.  The  bulk,  solubility,  and 
peculiar  tendency  to  fermentation,  of  barn-yard  manure,  ren- 
ders it  a  matter  of  no  little  study,  so  to  arrange  it,  as  to 
preserve  all  its  good  qualities,  and  apply  it,  undiminished,  to 
the  soil.  A  part  of  the  droppings  of  the  cattle,  are  neces- 
sarily left  in  the  pastures  or  about  the  stacks  where  they  are 
fed ;  though  it  is  better,  for  various  reasons,  that  they  should 
never  receive  their  food  fror.i  the  stack.  The  manure  thus 
left  in  the  fields,  fchould  be  beate^  uj)  and  scattered  with  UghU 


60  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

long -handled  mallets,  immediately  after  the  grass  shoots  ip 
the  spring,  and  again  before  the  rains  commence  in  the  au- 
tumn. With  these  exceptions,  and  the  slight  waste  Avhidi 
may  occur  in  driving  cattle  to  and  from  the  pasture,  all  the 
manure  should  be  dropped  either  in  the  stables  or  yards. 
These  ought  to  be  so  arranged,  that  cattle  may  pass  from  one 
directly  into  the  other  ;  and  the  yard  should,  if  possible,  be 
furnished  with  running  water.  There  is  twice  the  value  of 
manure  wasted  annually,  on  some  farms,  in  sending  the  cat- 
tle abroad  to  water,  that  would  be  required  to  provide  it  for 
them  in  the  yard  for  fifty  years. 

Keep  the  premises  where  the  manure  is  dropped,  as  dry 
as  possible  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  the  eaves  may  project  seve- 
ral feet  beyond  the  sides  of  the  building,  so  as  to  protect  the  ma- 
nure thrown  oiit  of  the  stables  from  the  Avash  of  rains.  The 
barns  and  all  the  sheds  should  have  eave  troughs  to  carry  off 
the  v/ater,  which  if  saved  in  a  sufficiently  capacious  cistern, 
would  furnish  a  supply  for  the  cattle.  The  form  of  the  yard 
ought  to  be  dishing  towards  the  centre  ;  and  if  on  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil,  it  should  be  puddled  or  covered  with  clay  to 
prevent  the  leakage  and  escape  of  the  liquid  manure.  The 
floors  of  the  stables  may  be  so  made,  as  to  permit  the  urine 
to  fall  on  a  properly  prepared  bed  of  turf,  placed  under  them 
for  its  reception,  by  which  it  would  be  effectually  retained, 
till  removed  ;  or  it  should  be  led  off  by  troughs  into  the  yard, 
or  what  is  more  desirable,  to  a  muck  heap. 

It  is  better  to  feed  the  stra\v  and  coarse  fodder,  which  can 
always  be  advantageously  done  by  cutting  them  with  a 
straw-cutter,  and  mixing  it  with  meal  or  roots.  When  it  is 
not  thus  consumed,  it  may  first  be  used  as  litter  for  the  cat- 
tle, and  as  it  becomes  saturated  with  the  droppings  it  should 
be  thrown  into  the  yard. 

If  the  cattle  are  fed  under  sheds,  the  whole  surface  ought 
to  be  covered  with  such  straw  and  refuse  forage  as  can 
be  collected  ;  and  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  these,  peat  or  any 
turf,  which  is  well  filled  Avith  the  root**  of  grass,  and  espe- 
cially the  rich  wash  from  the  road  side  may  be  substituted 
The  manure  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate  through  the  win 
ter,  unless  it  be  more  convenient  to  carry  it  on  to  the  fields 
When  the  Avarm  weather  appproaches,  a  close  attention  to 
the  manure  is  necessary.  The  escape  cf  the  frost  permits 
circulation  of  the  air  through  it,  and  the  increasing  heat  of 
the  sun  promotes  fermentation  and  decomposition. 

JLong  and  Short  Manure. —  The  question  has  beepi  ofteo 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  6r 

mooted,  as  to  the  comparative  advantages  of  long  and  short 
manure — the  fermented  aiid  unfermented.  This  must  de- 
pend on  the  use  for  './hich  they  are  designed.  If  intended  for 
Ihe  garden  beds,  for  loose,  light  soils,  or  as  a  lop  dressing  for 
meadows  or  any  Jirops,  or  if  needed  to  kill  any  noxious  seeds 
incorporated  with  the  heap,  it  should  be  fermented ;  if  for 
hoed  crops  in  clay  or  loamy  soils,  it  should  be  used  in  aa 
fresh  or  unchanged  a  condition  as  possible.  Loose  soils  are 
still  further  loosened  for  a  time,  by  long  manure,  and  much 
of  its  volatile  parts  is.lost  before  it  is  reduced  to  mold.  Ad- 
hesive and  compact  soils,  on  the  contrary,  are  improved  by  the 
coarsest  manures.  These  tend  to  the  separation  of  the  earth ; 
and  all  the  gases  which  are  set  free  in  fermentation,  are 
combined  and  firmly  held  in  the  soil. 

Decomposition  of  Manures. — Three  conditions  are  essen- 
tial to  produce  rapid  decomposition  in  manure  ;  air,  mois- 
ture, and  a  temperature  above  65°  ;  and  these,  except  in 
frosty  weather,  are  generally  present  in  the  heap.  The 
gradual  chemical  changes  going  on  in  all  manures,  but  most 
actively  in  the  excrements  of  the  horse  and  sheep,  when  they 
have  sufficient  air  and  moisture,  induce  an  elevation,  which 
keeps  them  always  above  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding air.  If  the  manure  be  trodden  compactly,  and  satu- 
rated with  water,  the  air  cannot  circulate ;  and  if  its  tempera- 
ture be  likewise  kept  down,  it  will  be  preserved  a  long  time 
unchanged.  The  fermentation  of  manure  should  go  forward, 
when  thoroughly  blended  with  all  the  vegetable  and  liquid  fer- 
tilizers about  the  premises,  and  also  including  ashes,  charcoal, 
gypsum  and  coal-dust  ;  the  last  three  substances  combining 
with  and  retaining  the  ammonia  as  it  is  formed.  Over 
all  these  should  be  placed  a  good  coating  of  turf,  peal,  or  fine 
mold,  which  will  absorb  any  gases  that  escape  the  gypsum, 
and  other  absorbents. 

Old  mortar  or  effete  lime  may  also  be  added,  for  the  iorma- 
tion  of  nitric  acid.  It  draws  this  not  only  from  the  materials 
in  the  heap,  but  largely  also  from  the  nitrogen  of  the  an- ;  it 
having  been  ascertained  in  the  manufactm^e  of  sali-petre, 
(nitrate  of  potash,)  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  salt, 
is  greatly  increased  above  that  in  the  manure  used.  The 
fibsorption  of  nitre  by  lime,  in  a  course  of  years,  is  very  large. 
as  is  shown  by  the  practice  of  the  Chinese  farmers,  who  to 
secure  it  for  manure,  will  gratuitously  remove  the  oid  plan- 
ter on  walls  and  replace  it  with  new. 

Tf  required  to  hasten  decay   -smd  especially,  if  there  be  in 


62  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

tractabJe  vegetables,  as  broom  and  other  corn-stalks,  or  such 
as  have  seeds  that  ought  to  be  destroyed,  they  may  be  well 
moistened  and  thrown  together  in  layers,  three  or  four  inches 
thick ;  and  on  each  may  be  strewn  a  liberal  coating  of  fresh, 
unslacked  lime,  reduced  to  powder.  This  promotes  decompo- 
sition, and  when  it  is  far  enough  advanced,  the  whole  may 
be  sparingly  added  to  the  general  mass,  as  the  lime  will  by 
that  time  have  become  mild.  When  remote  from  the  cattle 
yard,  these  coarse  materials  may  be  at  once  burned,  and  the 
ashes  added  to  the  soil ;  or  they  may  be  buried  in  furrows, 
where  the  ground  will  not  be  disturbed  till  they  are  entirely 
rotted. 

When  thoroughly  decomposed,  the  manure  heap  will  have 
lost  half  its  original  weight,  most  of  which  has  escaped  as 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  It  may  then  be  carted  on  to  the 
ground,  and  at  once  incorporated  with  it  ;  or  if  intended  for 
a  top  dressing,  it  should  be  scattered  over  it,  immediately 
before  or  during  wet  weather  For  the  protection  of  the 
manure,  it  would  be  well  to  cover  it  with  a  roof,  and  convey 
off  all  the  Avater  from  the  eaves.  This  will  prevent  any 
waste  of  the  soluble  portions  and  promote  the  escape  of  mois- 
ture, by  the  free  circulation  of  air,  which  to  the  extent  of  this 
evaporation,  will  lessen  the  labor  of  hauling. 

Tanks  for  holding  Liquid  Manure  have  long  been  in 
use.  They  should  be  convenient  to  the  stalls  and  yards,  and 
with  tight  drains,  convey  into  them  every  particle  of  the 
urine  and  drainage  from  the  manure.  Incompact  clay,  they 
may  be  made  by  simply  excavating  the  earth,  and  the  sides 
can  be  kept  from  falling  in,  by  a  rough  wall,  or  by  planks  sup- 
ported in  an  upright  position,  by  a  frame-work  of  joice.  But 
lu  all  cases,  the  cisterns  should  be  closely  covered,  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  ammonia,  which  is  developed  while  fer- 
menting. In  porous  soils,  it  is  necessary  to  construct  them 
with  stone  or  brick,  laid  in  water-lime  or  cement. 

When  partially  filled,  fermentation  will  soon  take  place  in 
the  tank,  and  especially  in  warm  weather ;  gypsum  or  char- 
coal should  then  be  thrown  in  to  absorb  the  ammonia.  A 
few  days  after  decorr.position  commences,  it  should  be  pumped 
into  casks  and  carried  upon  the  land.  If  intended  for  water- 
ing plants,  it  must  be  diluted  sufficiently  to  prevent  injury 
to  them.  The  qumtity  of  water  required,  will  depend  o*:^ 
the  strength  of  the  liquid,  and  the  time  it  is  applied  ;  mucl 
less  water  being  necessary  to  dilute  it  in  a  wet,  than 
in  a  dry  time.     By  fernnnting  in  thi  open  air  and  undiluted. 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  Od 

it  has  been  foul. d,  that  in  six  weeks,  cow's  urine  will  lose 
nearly  one-half  of  its  solid  matter  or  salts,  and  ^  of  its 
ammonia  ;  while  that  which  had  been  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  lost  only  A  of  the  former,  and  | 
of  the  latter.  The  stables  and  troughs  leading  to  the  tank, 
should  be  frequently  Avashed  down  and  sprinkled  with 
gypsum.  This  last  will  absorb  much  of  the  ammonia,  which 
would  othe.  wise  escape.  Some  loss  of  the  volatile  matter 
must  be  expected,  and  the  sooner  it  is  used  after  proper  fer- 
mentation or  ripeness,  as  it  is  termed,  the  greater  will  be  the 
economy. 

Liquid  Manure  applied  to  the  Muck  Heap). — As  a  gene- 
ral rule,  it  is  more  economical  and  a  great  saving  of  labo^ 
to  keep  the  urine  above  ground,  and  mix  it  at  once  with  the 
manure ;  but  in  this  case  vegetable  or  earthy  absorbents 
must  be  adequately  supplied  ;  and  in  addition,  the  heap  ought 
frequently  to  be  sprinkled  with  gypsum  or  charcoal.  Rich 
turf,  the  wash  of  the  road -side,  tan  bark  or  saw-dust,  and  all 
refuse  vegetables  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  being  so 
placed  that  the  liquid  can  run  on  to  them,  or  be  deposited 
where  it  can  be  poured  over  the  heap.  The  same  protec- 
tion, of  a  rough,  open  shed,  should  be  given  to  tliis,  as  to  the 
other  heaps,  to  facilitate  evaporation  and  prevent  drenching 
from  rains.  When  fully  saturated  with  the  urinary  salts,  and 
all  is  properly  decomposed,  it  may  be  carried  out  for  use,' 
or  closely  covered  with  earth  till  wanted.  The  decomposi- 
tion is  in  a  great  measure  arrested,  by  covering  with  com- 
pact earth,  thoroughly  trodden  together  ;  this  prevents  the 
access  of  air,  which  is  essential  to  its  progress. 

A  simple  yet  economical  mode  of  saving  the  liquid  manure, 
is  sometimes    adopted  in  Scotland,  and    is    thus   detailed : 

"  We  divide  a  shed  into  two  compartments ;  one  of  which 
we  make  water-tight,  by  puddling  the  side  walls  Avith  clay 
to  the  height  of  two  feet,  and  separated  from  the  other 
compartment  by  a  low,  water-tight  wall  or  boarding.  This 
is  the  fermenting  tank,  which  is  filled  half  or  three-fourths 
full  of  pulverized  burnt  peat,  and  the  liquid  manure  from  the 
stables  and  pig-styes,  directed  into  it.  This  is  mixed  up 
vvith  the  pulverized  peat,  and  allowed  to  remain  three  or 
four  weeks,  till  the  decomposition  seems  about  completed 
being  occasionally  stirred  after  the  composition  has  become 
about  the  consistency  of  gruel.  The  whole  is  then  ladlea 
with  a  pole  and  bucket,  over  the  low  partition  into  the  se- 
cond floor,  which  is  also  three  parts   filled  with  the  carboc* 


64  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

ized  peat ;  and  as  the  second  floor  is  meant  merely  as  a  filtei, 
we  have  it  lower  on  one  side  than  the  other,  by  Avhich  means, 
in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two,  the  carbonized  peat  is  left 
comparatively  dry.  The  water  having  passed  ofi"  at  the 
lower  side,  the  first  or  fermenting  floor  is  again  tilled  as  be- 
fore, and  the  contents  of  the  second  floor,  if  considered  satu« 
rated  enough,  are  then  shovelled  up  into  a  corner,  and  al- 
lowed to  dry  till  used,  which  may  be  either  immediately,  or 
at  the  end  of  twenty  years,  as  scarcely  anything  will  eff"ect 
it,  if  not  exposed  to  the  continued  washing  of  pure  water,  or 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  tlie  roots  of  growing  plants.  By 
being  thinly  spread  on  a  granary  floor,  it  soon  becomes  per- 
fectly dry,  and  suited  to  pass  through  drill  machines. 

The  mixing  of  the  carbonized  peat  with  the  liquid  ma- 
nure, on  the  first  or  fermenting  floor,  is  for  laying  hold  of  the 
gaseous  matters,  as  they  escape  during  the  fermentation ; 
perhaps  other  substances  may  secure  these  more  eff"ectually, 
but  none  so  cheaply.  By  this  plan,  a  great  many  desiderata 
are  at  once  obtained.  You  get  free  of  over  900  parts  out  of 
every  1,000  of  the  weight  and  bulk  of  manure,  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  water;  ^vhile  at  th-e  same  time,  all  the  fer- 
tilizing properties  contained  in  it,  are  combined  with  light, 
cleanly,  and  portable  mjiterials,  and  possessed  of  the  peculiar 
property  of  holding  together  the  most  volatile  substances,  till 
gradually  called  forth  by  the  exigencies  of  the  growing 
plants.  Lastly,  you  get  free  of  the  tank,  hogshead,  and 
watering  cart,  with  all  its  appendages,  and  are  no  more 
bothered  with  overflowing  tank,  or  overfermented  liquid, 
with  weather  unsuited  to  its  application.  You  have  merely 
to  shovel  past  the  saturated  charcoal,  and  shovel  in  a  little 
fresh,  and  the  process  goes  on  again,  while  the  prepared 
peat  lies  ready  for  all  crops,  all  seasons  and  all  times." 

Value  of  Liquid  Manures. — The  urine  voided  from  a 
single  cow,  is  considered  worth  $10  per  annum,  in  Flanders, 
where  agricultural  practice  has  reached  a  high  state  of  ad- 
vancement. It  furnishes  900  lbs.  of  solid  matter,  and  at  the 
price  of  $50  per  ton,  for  Avhich  guano  is  frequently  sold,  the 
urine  of  a  cow  for  one  year  is  worth  $20.  And  yet  eco- 
nomical farmers  will  continue  to  waste  urine  and  buy 
guano  I  "The  urine  of  a  cow  for  a  year  will  manure  1| 
acres  of  land,  and  is  more  vahiable  than  its  dung,  in  the  ratio 
by  bulk,  of  seven  to  six  ;  and  in  real  value  as  two  to  one." — 
{Dana  )  How  important,  then,  that  every  particle  of  it  be 
carefully  husbanded  for  ths  crops. 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  65 

The  average  urine  of  the  cow,  as  analyzed  by  Sprengel, 
contains  92.6  per  cent,  of  water  ;  that  of  the  horse,  94  ;  the 
sheep,  96 ;  the  hog,  92.6 ;  and  the  human,  93.3.  The  re- 
mainder is  composed  of  salts  and  rich  food  for  vegetables ; 
but  the  human  is  far  richer  in  these  than  any  other.  The 
ouantity  and  value  of  urine,  varies  much  in  different  speci- 
mens from  the  same  or  similar  subjects,  and  depends  on  the 
food  and  liquid  taken  into  the  stomach,  the  loss  by  perspira- 
tion and  other  circumstances. 

SOLID  ANIMAL  MAITORES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 

Of  these.  Horse  dung  is  the  most  valuable  and  the  easiest  to 
decompose.  If  in  heaps,  fermentation  will  sometimes  com- 
mence in  24  hours;  and  even  in  mid- winter,  if  a  large  pile  of  fresh 
manure  be  accumulated,  it  will  proceed  with  great  rapidity. 
If  this  is  not  arrested,  a  few  weeks,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, are  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  a  small  part  of  its  origi- 
nal weight  and  value.  Boussingault,  one  of  the  most  care- 
ful observers  of  nature,  as  Avell  as  an  accurate,  experimental 
chemist,  states  the  nitrogen  in  fresh  dried— horse  dung  to 
be,  2.7  per  cent,  of  its  Avhole  weight.  The  same  manure 
laid  in  a  thick  stratum  and  permitted  to  vindergo  thorough  de- 
composition, loses  Jo  of  its  entire  Aveight,  and  the  remain- 
ing tenth  when  dried,  gives  only  one  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
Such  are  the  losses  which  follow  the  neglect  of  inconsider- 
ate farmers.  Peculiar  care  should  therefore  be  taken,  to 
arrest  this  action  at  the  precise  point  desired.  Salt  scattered 
through  the  heap,  Avill  materially  lessen  the  activity  of  de- 
composition. It  is  better,  however,  to  add  turf  as  it  accu- 
mulates, in  addition  to  the  salt,  if  it  is  to  remain  long  before 
being  composted  or  carried  on  the  land. 

The  manure  of  Sheep  is  strong  and  very  active,  and  next 
to  that  of  the  horse,  is  the  most  subject  to  heat  and  decom- 
pose. The  manure  of  Cattle  and  Stvine  being  of  a  colder 
nature,  may  be  thrown  in  with  that  of  the  horse  and  sheep 
in  alternate  layers,  or  it  may  remain  in  heaps  by  itself  if 
more  convenient. 

-  If  fresh  manure  be  intermixed  with  straw  and  othef  ab- 
sorbents, (sea- weed,  peat,  turf,  tan-bark  and  the  like,)  and 
over  this  a  thick  covering  of  earth  or  peat  be  placed,  this  ex- 
ternal coating  will  combine  with  any  volatile  matters,  which 
fermentation  developes  in  the  lower  part  of  the  mass,  and 
preserve  most  of  it  from  waste.     Frequen'   .Earning  of  the 


66  amer:ca»  a&riculture. 

manures,  is  a  practice  attended  with  no  benefit,  but  with  the 
certainty  of  the  escape  of  much  of  its  valuable  properties. 

Many  farmers  assign  a  distinct  or  peculiar  merit  to  the 
different  manures.  Much  of  this  opinion  is  fanciful ;  for 
there  is  frequently  more  difference  in  the  comparative  value 
of  that  from  the  same  species,  and  even  the  same  individual, 
at  different  times  and  under  different  circumstances,  than 
from  those  of  different  species. 

The  diversity  in  mamires  tnay  arise  horn  several  causes. 
The  more  thoroughly  the  food  is  digested  and  its  nutritive 
qualities  extracted,  the  less  is  the  value  o/  the  manure. 
Thus,  on  the  same  quantit)'^  and  quality  of  food,  a  growing 
animal,  or  a  cow  in  calf  or  giving  milk,  yields  a  poorer  qual- 
ity of  feces  and  urine,  than  such  as  are  not  increasing  in 
weight  ;  and  if  the  animal  be  actually  losing  condition,  the 
richness  of  the  manure  is  very  much  increased. 

T^ie  quality  of  food  adds  materially  to  this  difference,  the 
richest  giving  by  far  the  most  valuable  manure.  Those 
animals  which  are  kept  on  a  scanty  supply  of  straw  or  refuse 
hay,  yield  manure  little  better  than  good  turf,  and  far  infe- 
rior to  the  droppings  of  such  as  are  highly  fed.  The  imper- 
fect mastication  and  digestion  of  the  horse  and  mule,  in 
comparison  with  the  ruminating  animals,  the  ox  and  sheep, 
their  generally  better  quality  of  food,  and  the  fact,  that  for 
the  greater  part  of  their  lives  they  are  not  adding  to  their 
carcass,  is  the  cause  of  the  increased  value  of  their  manure. 
Their  solid  feoes  are  also  much  richer  than  those  of  the  cow, 
as  they  void  less  urine  and  this  is  of  an  indifferent  character. 
In  a  long  series  of  careful  experiments,  made  at  Dresden 
and  Berlin  by  order  of  the  Saxon  and  Prussian  governments, 
it  was  ascertained,  that  uumanured  soil  which  would  yield 
three  for  one  sown,  when  dressed  with  cow  dung,  would 
give  seven  ;  with  horse  dung,  ten ;  and  with  human,  fourteen. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  proportions  of  the  various 
elements  which  compose  the  farmer's  manure  heaj),  an  analy- 
sis from  jMr.  Richardson  is  subjoined,  of  some  taken  frona 
the  farm  yard  in  tie  condition  usually  applied  to  the  field. 


Water 

Organic  matter 
Inorganic  sa)t( 

Fresh 

64.96 
24.71 
10.33 

100.00 

Carbon 
Hydrogen  . 
Oxygen 
Nitrogen    . 
Ashes 

Di 

ried  at  212". 

37.40 

5.27 
25  62 

1.76 
SO.Od 

lOCUW 


ORGANIC  MANURES. 


67 


INORGANIC  MATTERS. 


Portion  solubl 

e  in  muriatic  acid. 

Solub; 

e  in  wat** 

Silica 

27.01 

Potash 

.     322 

Phosphate  of  lime 

7.11 

Soda 

.     2.73 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 

2.26 

Lime 

.     0.34 

Phosphate  of  iron 

4.63 

Magnesia 

.     0.26 

Carbonate  of  lime 

9.34 

Sulphuric  atld 

.     3.27 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

1.63 

Chlorine    . 

.     3.15 

Sand 

30.99 

Silica 

.    0.04 

Carbon 

83 

Alkali,  and  loss 

3.14 

13.01 
86.99 

The  following  is  from  other  specimens  of  fresh   farm 
yard  manures,  analyzed  by  Messrs.  Allen  and  Greenhill. 


Farmyard 

Farmyard 

^ 

JIanure 
from  Kent. 

Manure 
from  Surrey 

Per-Centage  of  Ash 

- 

- 

9.2 

9.6 

Silica 

. 

. 

70.79 

71.32 

Potash 

. 

. 

3.32 

5.14 

Soda           ... 

. 

. 

0.92 

1.68 

Lime 

. 

- 

6.90 

12.3-2 

Magnesia 

- 

. 

0.56 

0.82 

Common  salt 

- 

1.43 

1.22 

Pho.<;phate  of  iron 

. 

2.04 

2.03 

Phosphate  of  alumina 

- 

- 

1.53 

2.54 

Sulphuric  acid 

. 

. 

i.yg 

1.57 

Phosphoric  acid 

1.5S 

1.27 

Manganese 

a  trace 

99.76 

99.91 

By  knowing  the  composition  of  the  added  manures  and 
the  subtracted  crops,  the  farmer  can  keep  an  intelligent 
account  of  debt  and  credit  with  his  fields.  If  he  could  make 
an  exact  estimate  of  the  portion  of  the  soil  that  might  be- 
come soluble  in  the  course  of  the  growing  season,  (available 
for  the  present  crop),  and  carry  into  this  account  also,  the 
sum  of  the  elements  exhausted  by  drainage  and  evaporation, 
as  ^vell  as  those  added  from  the  atmosphere,  rains  and  dews, 
and  appropriated  to  vegetation  or  permanently  fixed  in  the 
soil,  he  would  then  be  able,  at  all  times  to  know,  precisely 
what  additional  ingredients  {special  manures)  would  be 
necessary,  and  in  what  proportions,  to  secure  the  largest 
amount  of  aay  required  crop, 

POXJDRETTE  AND  URATE. 

Poudrette  is  the  name  given  to  the  human  feces  after 
being  mixed  with  charcoal  dust  or  charred  peat.  By  these 
it  is  disinfecled  of  its  effluvia,  and  when  dried,  it  becomes  p 


68  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

convenient  article  for  use,  and  even  for  remote  transpovtation. 
The  odor  is  sometimes  expelled  by  adding  quick  lime,  but 
this  removes  with  it  much  of  the  ammonia,  and  on  this 
account  should  always  be  avoided. 

Urate  as  well  as  poudrette,  has  become  an  article  of 
commerce.  It  is  manufactured  in  large  cities  by  collecting 
the  urine,  and  mixing  with  it  l-6th  or  l-7th  of  its  weight  of 
ground  gypsum,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  several  days.  The 
urine  combines  with  a  portion  of  the  ammonia,  after  which  it 
is  dried  and  the  liquid  is  throAvn  away.  Only  a  part  of  the 
value  is  secured  by  this  operation.  It  is  sijmetimes  prepared 
by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  gradually  added  to 
urine  and  forms  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  afterwards 
dried.  This  secures  a  greater  amoiint  of  the  valuable  prop- 
erties of  the  urine  ;  but  even  this  is  not  withoL    waste. 

NigJit  Soil. — From  the  analysis  of  Berzelius,  the  excre- 
ments of  a  healthy  man,  yielded  water,  733  ;  albumen,  nine  ; 
bile,  nine  ;  mucilage, fat  and  the  animal  matters,  167  ;  saline 
matters,  twelve  ;  and  undecomposedfood,  70 — in  1,000  parts. 
When  freed  from  Avater,  1,000  parts  left,  of  ash,  132  ;  and 
this  yielded,  carbonate  of  soda,  eight  ;  sulphate  of  soda,  with 
a  little  sulphate  of  potash,  and  phosphate  of  soda,  eight ; 
phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  a  trace  of  gypsum, 
100;  silica,  sixteen. 

Human  -urine,  according  to  the  same  authority,  gives  in 
every  1,000  parts,  of  water,  933  ;  urea,  30.1;uric  acid,  1.0  ; 
free  acetic  acid,  lactate  of  ammonia,  and  inseparable  animal 
matter,  17.1  ;  mucus  of  the  bladder,  0.3  ;  sulphate  of  potash, 
3.7  ;  sulphate  of  soda,  3.2  ;  phosphate  of  soda,  2.9  ;  phos- 
phate of  ammonia,  1.6  ;  common  salt,  4.5  ;  sal-ammoniac 
1.5  ;  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  Avith  a  trace  of  silica 
and  of  fluoride  of  calcium,  1.1. 

Urea  is  a  solid  product  of  urine,  and  according  to  Prout, 
gives  of  carbon,  19.99;  oxygen,  26.63;  hydrogen,  6.65; 
nitrogen,  46.65 — in  100  parts.  The  analysis  of  Woehler 
and  Liebig  differs  immaterially  from  this.  Such  are  the 
materials,  abounding  in  every  ingredient  that  can  minister 
to  the  production  of  plants,  which  are  suffered  to  waste  in 
the  air,  and  taint  its  purity  and  healthfulness  ;  or  they  are 
buried  deep  in  the  earth  beyond  the  reach  of  any  useful 
application  ;  and  even  in  this  position,  (frequently  in  villa- 
ges, and  always  in  cities),  they  pollute  the  waters  with 
their  disgusting  am^  p  ^isonous  exudations.     The  water  from 


ORttANJC    MANURES,  69 

;TUe  of  the  wells  in  constant  use  in  Boston,  examined  by 
Dr.  Jackson,  fiave  an  appreciable  per  centage  of  night  soil ! 

Treatment  of  Night  Soil. — No  perfect  mode  has  yet 
been  devised  of  managing  night  soil.  For  compactness  and 
facility  of  remo\al,  we  suggest,  that  in  cities,  metallic  boxes 
of  sufficient  capacity  be  placed  in  the  privies,  so  arranged  as 
to  be  easily  taken  out  in  the  rear,  for  the  purpose  of  empty 
ing  their  contents.  To  prevent  corrosion,  they  may  be  made 
of  composite  or  galvanized  metal.  In  the  country  where  it 
can  be  at  once  applied,  tight  wooden  boxes  may  be  used  with 
hooks  on  the  outer  side,  to  which  a  team  may  be  attached 
for  drawing  it  out  wherever  required.  The  boxes  should 
have  a  layer  of  charcoal  dust,  charred  peat  or  gypsum  at  the 
bottom,  and  others  successively  as  they  become  filled. 
These  materials  are  cheap,  compact,  and  readily  combine 
with  the  volatile  gases.  Sulphuric  acid  is  more  efficient 
than  either,  but  more  expensive.  Quick-lime  will  neutralize 
the  odor,  but  it  expels  the  enriching  qualities ;  and  if  it  be 
intended  to  use  the  night  soil,  lime  should  never  be  jnixed 
with  it.  Both  the  charcoal  and  peat  condense  and  retain 
the  gases  in  their  pores,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  gyp- 
sum leaves  the  lime,  and  like  the  free  acid,  combines  with 
the  ammonia,  forming  sulphate  of  ammonia,  an  inodorous 
and  poAverful  fertilizer.  Ra^v  peat,  turf,  dry  tan-bark,  saw- 
dust and  ashes  are  all  good  ;  but  as  more  bulk  is  needed  to 
effect  the  object,  their  use  is  attended  with  greater  incon- 
venience. From  its  great  tendency  to  decompose,  night  soil 
should  be  immediately  covered  with  earth,  when  exposed  to 
the  air.  It  is  always  saved  by  the  Flemings  and  Chinese ; 
the  former  generally  using  it  liquid,  and  the  latter,  either  as 
a  liquid,  or  mixed  with  clay  and  dried  like  brick. 

The  sole  use  of  this  manure,  guano,  ashes,  charcoal,  lime, 
gypsum  and  other  salts,  effectually  prevents  the  propagation 
of  all  weeds.  Its  value,  like  all  others,  depends  much  on  the 
food  from  which  it  is  derived  ;  it  being  richest  when  large 
quantities  of  meat  and  other  nutritive  food  is  consumed. 
The  difference  in  the  products  from  the  best  hotels  and  poor- 
ly supplied  work-houses,  though  not  in  proportion  1 1  the  first 
cost  of  the  food  consumed,  yet  bears  no  inconsiderable  ratio 
to  it. 

THE  EXCREMENTS  OF  FOWLS. 

These  contain  both  the  feces  and  urine  combined,  and  are 
neyt  to  night  soil  in  value.     They  should  be  kept  dry,  or 


70  AMERICAN    AGr>.:OULTURE. 

what  is  better,  mixed  at  once  with  the  soil,  or  with  i  com- 
post where  their  volatile  matters  will  be  retained.  They 
are  very  soluble,  and  when  exposed  to  moisture,  are  He  ble  to 
waste.  Since  these  contain  the  essential  elements  of  guano, 
the  economy  of  saving  them  must  be  apparent,  to  tiiose  who 
buy  the  imported  fertilizers  at  so  large  a  cost. 

FLESH,  BLOOD,  &c. 

When  decomposed,  these  substances  afford  all  the  mate- 
rials of  manure  in  its  most  condensed  form.  Whenever  pro- 
curable, they  should  be  mixed  with  eight  or  ten  times  their 
weight  of  dry  peat,  turf,  tan-bark  or  rich  garden  mold.  A 
dead  cow  or  horse  thus  buried  in  a  bed  of  peat,  will  yield  12 
or  15  loads  of  the  richest  manvire.  Butchers'  offal  when 
thus  treated,  will  yield  ten  times  its  weight  of  more  valuable 
manure  than  any  from  the  cattle  yards. 

HAIR,   BRISTLES,    HORNS,     HOOFS,    PELTS,    THE    FLOCKS    AND 
WASTE  OF  WOOLEN  MANUFACTORIES  AND  TANNERIES. 

These  are  all  rich  in  every  organic  material  required  by 
plants ;  and  when  mingled  with  the  soil,  they  gradually 
yield  them,  and  afford  a  permanent  and  luxuriant  growth  to 
every  cultivated  crop.  Most  animal  substances  contain  from 
15  to  18  per  cent,  of  nitrogen;  and  when  it  is  considered,  that 
this  is  a  greater  amount  than  is  afforded  by  an  equal  quanti- 
ty of  saltpetre,  and  about  two-thirds  of  that  contained  in  ni- 
tric acid,  (one  of  the  most  condensed  and  powerful  manures), 
the  recklessness  and  waste  is  apparent,  of  throwing  dead  ani- 
mals and  similar  manures  by  the  road-side,  and  allowing  them 
to  decay  above  ground  ;  thus  robbing  the  soil  of  its  just  dues, 
and  afflicting  the  nostrils  of  the  community  with  what  if 
rightly  appropriated,  might  minister  to  the  necessaries  and 
even  to  the  luxuries  of  mankind. 

FISH. 

Fish  are  extensively  used  in  this  and  other  countries  for 
manure.  The  moss-banker,  alewives  and  other  fish  frequent 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  countless  numbers  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  and  are  there  caught  in  seines,  and  sold  to  the  far- 
mers by  the  wagon-load.  They  are  sometimes  plowed  into 
the  soil  with  a  spring  crop  ;  or  they  are  more  frequently  used 
for  growing  corn,  for  which  purpose,  one  or  two  fish  are 
placed  in  each  hill  and  buried  with  the  seed  ;  or  they  are 
turned  under  near  the  young  corn,  at  the  first  running  of  the 


ORGANIC  MANURES.  71 

plow  in  cultivating.  This  was  the  system  adopted  by  the 
Aborigines  of  our  country,  in  raising  their  maize  on  exhaust- 
ed lands,  long  before  their  occupancy  or  even  discovery  by 
the  whites.  There  is  waste  in  this  practice,  as  the  soils 
used  for  corn  are  generally  light  and  sandy  ;  and  the  slight, 
silicious  covering  imperfectly  combines  with  the  putrefying 
fish,  and  much  of  their  gases  thereby  eludes  the  plant,  to  the 
excessive  annoyance  of  the  olfactories  of  the  residents,  for 
miles  around. 

The  proper  method  of  using  them,  is  by  composting  with 
dry  peat,  in  alternate  layers  of  about  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness of  fish  to  nine  of  peat,  and  over  the  whole,  a  coating  of 
two  or  three  feet  of  peat  is  placed.  A  few  weeks  of  warm 
weather  suffice  to  decompose  the  fish,  which  unite  with  the 
peat,  no  perceptible  effluvia  escaping  from  the  heap,  so  ef- 
fectual is  its  absorption.  A  strong  acid  smell  is,  however, 
noticeable,  originating  in  the  escape  of  the  acidifying  or  an- 
tiseptic principle  contained  in  the  peat,  which  has  kept  it  for 
ages  in  a  state  of  preservation,  and  whose  expulsion  is  the 
signal  for  breaking  up  its  own  structure.  It  now  passes 
rapidly  into  decay,  and  is  soon  lost  in  a  mass  of  undis- 
tinguishable,  vegetable  mold,  the  fruitful  bed  of  new  and 
varied  vegetable  forms.  This  compost  may  remain  without 
injury  or  waste  for  years.  Two  or  three  ^veeks  before  using, 
it  should  be  overhauled  and  intimately  mixed,  when  another 
fermentation  commences  witli  an  elevation  of  temperature. 
When  this  ceases,  it  may  be  applied  to  the  land.  This  com- 
post will  be  found  adapted  to  nearly  all  soils  and  crops. 

COTTON  SEED. 

This  is  yielded  at  the  rate  of  200  to  400  lbs.  per  acre,  and 
is  a  valuable  manure.  It  would  doubtless  be  more  profitable 
if  first  made  to  yield  the  oil  which  it  contains,  to  the  amount 
of  about  20  per  cent,  and  use  the  residuum  as  a  manure ;  or 
to  feed  it,  when  properly  prepared,  to  the  stock,  and  use 
their  manure  for  the  fields.  Where  this  is  not  done,  how- 
ever, the  seed  ought  carefully  to  be  saved  and  applied  to  the 
land,  at  the  rate  of  60  to  80,  or  even  100  bushels  per  acre. 

It  may  be  scattered  broadcast,  and  plowed  in  during  the 
winter,  where  it  will  rot  before  spring  ;  or  it  may  be  thrown 
into  heaps  and  allowed  to  heat,  and  when  vitality  is 
destroyed,  it  may  be  plowed  or  drilled  in,  or  thrown  upon  the 
corn  hills  and  buried  with  the  hoe  or  plow. 


72  ■  AMEB.ICAN    AGRICtTLTUSlE. 

SEA  WEED 

Is  a  powerful  aid  to  the  farmer,  when  within  convenienf 
distances.  It  is  thrown  upon  the  sea-coast  by  the  waves  in 
large  winrows  ;  or  it  is  carefully  raked  up  from  the  rocks  or 
bottom  of  the  bays,  either  by  farmers  or  those  who  make  it 
a  business  to  procure  and  sell  it.  It  may  be  used  as  beddinif 
for  cattle  or  litter  for  the  barnyard,  or  added  directly  to  tne 
compost  heap.  Where  the  distance  for  carrying  it  would 
prevent  its  use,  it  may  be  burned,  and  the  ashes  removed  to 
the  land.  It  has  much  more  saline  matter  than  vegetables 
which  grow  on  land,  and  yields  a  more  valuable  manure. 

PEAT. 

This  substance  is  seldom  found  in  this  country,  in  the 
purity  that  characterizes  it  in  many  parts  of  northern 
Europe.  There,  its  nearly  pure  carbonaceous  quality  admits 
of  its  extensive  use  as  fuel.  In  the  United  States,  it  is 
generally  mixed  with  the  wash  from  the  adjacent  elevations, 
which  renders  it  more  easily  susceptible  of  profitable  cultiva- 
tion in  its  native  bed,  and  scarcely  less  valuable  as  a  fer- 
tilizer when  applied  to  other  lands.  In  six  different  speci- 
mens from  Northampton,  and  four  from  other  localities  in 
Massachusetts,  Dr.  Dana  found  an  average  of  29.41  soluble, 
and  55.03  insoluble  vegetable  matter;  and  15.55  of  salts  and 
silicates,  in  every  100  parts.  His  researches  have  led  him 
to  recommend  the  mixture  of  30  lbs.  potash,  or  20  lbs.  soda 
ash  ;  or  what  is  more  economical  and  equally  efficacious, 
eight  bushels  of  unleached  wood  ashes  with  one  cord  of  peat 
as  it  is  dug  from  its  bed  ;  or  if  leached  ashes  be  used,  they 
should  be  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  three  of  peat. 
This  he  considers  fully  equivalent  to  pure  cow  dung  in  value. 
He  also  estunates  the  salts  and  organic  matter  of  four  cords 
of  peat,  as  equal  to  the  manure  of  a  cow  for  one  year.  The 
opinion  of  Mr.  Phinney,  of  Lexington,  Mass.,  founded  on 
close  observation  and  long  practice,  is,  that  one  part  of  green 
cattle  dung,  composted  with  twice  its  bulk  of  peat,  will 
make  the  whole  equal  in  value  to  the  unmixed  dimg. 

Peat  in  its  natural  condition,  contains  from  70  to  over  90 
per  cent,  of  water.  It  should  be  dug  from  its  bed  in  the  fall 
or  winter,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  and  exposing  it  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  when  it  will  be  found  to  have  lost 
about  two-thirds  of  its  bulk.  In  this  state,  it  still  holds 
about  65  per  cent,  of  water.  It  may  then  be  carried  into 
the  cattle  yards,  and  used  for  making  composts  in  any  wa:^ 
desired. 


ORGANIC    MANURES.  73 


RICH    TURF. 

Much  of  this  is  full  of  the  roots  of  grasses  and  decayed 
vegetables,  and  is  a  valuable  absorbent  of  every  species  of 
animal  or  other  manures.  Whenever  it  can  be  procured 
oy  the  road-side  or  other  waste  places,  it  should  be  used  for 
this  purpose.  It  is  frequently  filled  with  the  seeas  or  roots 
of  weeds,  which  ought  to  be  killed  preparatory  to  using  as 
manure.  A  mutually  beneficial  effect  is  produced,  by  mix- 
mg  turf  with  lime,  by  which  the  turf  is  speedily  rotted,  and 
tne  obnoxious  ^veeds  killed  ;  and  the  lime  is  thus  becoming 
equally  fitted  to  act  beneficially  when  applied  to  the  soil,  as  if 
already  incorporated  with  it.  Some  weeks  after  mixing  to- 
gether, the  heap  will  be  in  a  fit  condition  to  receive  every 
description  of  manure. 

SWAMP  MXTCK  OR  POND  MUD. 

Under  certain  conditions,  this  is  a  more  valuable  addition 
to  the  muck  heap,  or  more  properly,  a  foundation  for  it,  than 
either  of  the  preceding.  Especially  is  this  the  case,  when 
there  is  no  outlet  for  the  water  and  sediment ;  and  the  mud, 
besides  containing  a  large  proportion  of  salts,  the  result  of 
ages  of  evaporation,  is  the  receptacle  of  the  remains  of 
myriads  of  minute  shell  fish,  animalculee,  infusorias,  the  spawn 
and  exuvise  of  frogs  and  other  occupants.  Ducks  and  vari- 
ous aquatic  birds  fill  themselves  to  repletion,  when  ranging 
through  a  pond  thus  daintily  supplied ;  the  contents  of 
which  are  even  much  more  adapted  to  the  promotion  of 
vegetable  than  animal  life.  Such  reservoirs  of  vegetable  nu- 
trition, are  mines  of  wealth  to  the  farmer,  if  judiciously  ap- 
plied ;  nor  can  he  justify  meagre  returns  from  his  fields,  while 
this  remedy  is  within  his  reach. 

MANXTRINa  WITH  GREEN  CROPS. 

This  system  has  within  a  few  years,  been  extensively 
adopted  in  some  of  the  older-settled  portions  of  the  United 
States.  The  comparative  cheapness  of  land  and  its  pro- 
ducts, the  high  price  of  labor,  and  the  consequent  expense  of 
making  artificial  manures,  renders  this  at  present,  the  most 
economical  plan  which  can  be  pursued.  The  design  in  this 
practice  is  primarily,  fertilization ;  and  connected  with  it,  is 
the  clearing  of  the  ground  from  noxious  weeds,  as  in  fallows, 
by  plowing  in  the  vegetation  before  the  seed  is  ripened ;  and 
finally.the  object  is  to  loosen  the  soil  and  place  it  in  the  mel- 
Imvest  condition  for  the  crops  which  are  to  succeed.  Its  re- 
4 


74  AMERICAN    AGRICU-      Ut  fi. 

suits  have  been  entirely  successful,  when  steadi.y  pu.sued,  and 
with  a  due  consideration  of  the  objects  sought  and  the  means 
by  which  they  are  to  be  accomplished.  Lands  in  many  of  our 
eastern  States,  which  have  been  worn  out  by  improvident 
cultivation,  and  unsalaeble  at  .$10  an  acre,  have  by  this 
system,  while  steadily  remunerating  their  proprietors  by  their 
returning  crops,  for  all  the  outlay  of  labor  and  expense, 
been  brought  up  in  value  to  $50  per  acre. 

The  full  benelit  of  green  crops  as  manures  seems  only  to 
De  reahzed  where  there  is  sufficient  lime  in  the  soil.  Cal- 
careous soils,  or  such  as  have  a  large  proportion  of  lime, 
however  they  may  have  become  exhausted,  when  put  under 
a  thorough  course  of  treatment,  in  which  green  croj^s  at 
proper  intervals  are  returned  to  them,  are  soon  restored  to 
fertility  ;  and  when  lime  does  not  exist  in  the  soil,  the  appli- 
cation of  it  in  the  proper  manner  and  quantity,  will  produce) 
the  same  effect.  Gypsum  and  ashes  are  the  best  substitutes, 
when  lime  or  marl  is  difficult  to  be  procured. 

This  system  of  improvement,  varies  with  almost  every  indi- 
vidual who  practices  it,  according  to  the  quality  of  his  land, 
the  kind  of  crops  to  be  raised,  the  facility  of  procuring  ma- 
nures, the  luxuriance  of  particular  crops,  and  other  conside- 
rations. We  shall  state  merely,  the  general  principles  in 
this,  as  in  most  other  subjects,  and  leave  to  the  farmer's  judg- 
ment, to  apply  them  according  to  his  circumstances.  It  is 
always  better  to  commence  this  system,  while  the  land  is  in 
good  condition,  as  a  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation  is  as 
profitable  for  turning  in,  as  for  cropping.  Buckwheat,  oats, 
rye,  and  some  of  the  grasses,  have  been  used  for  this  purpose 
in  this  country;  and  spurry,  the  white  lupine,  the  vetch  and 
rape  in  Europe  ;  but  for  the  northern  portion  of  the  Union, 
nothing  has  been  hitherto  tried,  Avliich  is  so  well  fitted  for 
the  object,  as  red  clover. 

CLOVER   rOR    GREEN    MANURES. 

This  is  Sv  ited  to  all  soils,  that  will  grow  anything  profita- 
bly, from  sand,  if  possessing  an  adequate  amount  of  fertility, 
to  the  heaviest  clay,  if  drained  of  its  superfluous  Avater. 
The  seed  is  not  expensive,  its  growth  certain  and  rapid,  and 
the  expense  of  its  cultivation  trifling ;  wliile  the  return,  on  a 
kindly  soil,  and  with  proper  treatment,  is  large.  Added  to 
this,  and  very  much  increasing  its  merits,  is  the  abundance 
of  its  long  tap  roots,  which  penetrate  the  ground  to  a  great 
depth,  anc".  l)reak  up  the  stiff  soils,  in  a  nanner  peculiarly  bene* 


ORGAN.C     MANUKES.  .  75 

ficial  to  suc^  oeding  crops.  The  material  yieldec  ay  the  roots 
and  stubble,  is  of  itself  equal  to  a  good  dressing  of  manure. 
It  has  the  further  advantage,  of  giving  two  or  more  years  of 
growth  from  one  sowing,  and  of  maintaining  itself  in  the 
ground  thereafter,  by  self  seeding,  when  not  too  closely  crop 
ped  ;  and  it  is  equally  suited  to  profitable  pasturage  and.win 
ter  forage. 

If  the  first  season's  growth  be  luxuriant,  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  grain  upon  which  it  was  sown,  clover  may  be 
pastured  in  the  autumn,  or  suffered  to  fall  and  waste  on  the 
ground,  the  first  being  the  most  economical.  The  following 
year,  the  early  crops  may  be  taken  off  for  hay,  and  the  se- 
cond, after  partially  ripening  its  seeds,  may  be  plowed  in ;  and 
thus  it  carries  with  it,  a  full  crop  of  seed  for  future  growth. 
It  is  usual  when  wheat  is  cultivated,  to  turn  in  the  clover 
when  in  full  flow-erin  July,  and  allow  the  ground  to  remain 
undisturbed  till  the  proper  time  for  sowing  the  grain ;  when 
it  may  be  cross-plowed  if  necessary,  or  the  wheat  may  be 
sown  directly  on  the  ground  and  harrowed  in.  This  system 
gives  alternate  crops  of  grain  and  clover,  and  with  the  use  ot 
such  saline  manures,  as  may  be  necessary  to  replace  those 
abstracted  from  the  soil;  it  will  sustain  the  greatest  fertility. 
"With  a  slight  dressing  of  these,  when  the  land  is  in  good  con- 
dition, the  first  crop  of  clover  may  be  taken  off,  and  yet  al- 
low a  sufficient  growth  for  turning  in. 

It  is  customary,  however,  to  adopt  a  three  or  four  years 
course  of  cropping,  in  which  grain,  roots,  corn,  &c.  alternate 
with  clover  and  barn-yard  manures ;  and  this  we  think  the 
most  judicious  practice,  when  the  land  is  within  convenient  dis- 
tance of  the  manure.  If  the  fields  are  remote,  a  still  longer 
course  would  be  preferable,  where  stock  and  particularly  sheep 
are'kept ;  as  they  might  be  allowed  to  pasture  the  field  during 
a  much  greater  time.  Sheep  would  remove  only  so  much  of 
the  forage  as  remains  in  their  carcass ;  while  milch  coavs 
and  working  animals  would,  of  course,  carry  off  a  greater 
amount,  the  first  in  the  milk,  and  the  last  in  their  manure, 
dropped  while  out  of  the  field. 

THE  cow  PEA, 

Like  the  pole  bean,  of  which  it  seems  to  be  a  kindred 
genus,  grows  with  a  long  vine  and  abundance  of  leaves.  It 
is  deemed  the  best  of  the  fertilizers  for  the  Soiith.  It  v,'ill 
there  mature  in  the  same  field  with  the  corn,  after  that  has 
ripened ;  or  it  wL.  grow  two  crops   in  one  season,  from  tM^o 


76  AMERICAN    AGRICr  I  TORE 

succt-ssive  plantings.  This  is  also  a  valuable  fodder  for  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  and  the  ripe  peas  are  a  profitable  crop.  Like 
a  luxuriant  growth  of  clover,  it  requires  the  roller  to  pre- 
pare it  properly  for  the  plow,  when  turned  under  previous 
to  the  decay  of  the  vines.  The  cow  pea  is  an  economical  fer- 
tilizer, in  consequence  of  its  broad,  succulent,  bean-like 
leaves,  drawing  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid  largely  from  the  air , 
but  its  slight  fusiform  roots,  do  not  effect  that  mechanical  divi- 
sion so  beneficial  to  many  adhesive  soils,  which  is  produced 
by  the  long  tap  roots  of  the  clover. 

Spurry  is  extensively  used  as  a  fertilizer  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  (Flanders,  Germany  and  Denmark),  and  as  forage  for 
cattle,  both  in  its  green  and  dry  state.  It  is  admirably  adapt- 
ed to  the  lightest  sands,  where  it  is  said  to  grow  with  more 
luxuriance  and  profit,  than  any  other  of  the  cultivated  plants. 
It  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  after  grain  or  early  roots,  and  plow- 
ed under  the  following  spring.  Three  crops  may  be  grown 
on  the  same  land  in  one  season.  Van  Voght  says,  by  alter- 
nating these  crops  Avith  rye,  it  will  reclaim  the  worst  sands, 
and  yield  nearly  the  same  benefits,  if  pastured  off  by  cattle  ; 
while  it  adds  materially  to  the  advantages  of  other  manures 
applied  at  the  same  time.  It  grows  spontaneously  in  many 
of  our  fields,  as  a  weed  ;  and  its  cultivation  on  our  lightest 
eands,  which  are  too  poor  for  clover,  might  be  attended  with 
the  best  effects.  Like  the  cow  pea,  however,  it  is  deficient 
in  the  deep,  tap  roots,  which  give  much  of  their  efficiency  to 
the  clover  and  Avhite  lupine. 

WHITE    LUPINE     (Lupinus   albus.) 

This  plant  has  not,  to  my  knowledge,  been  introduced  as 
a  field  crop  in  this  country  ;  but  from  the  great  success 
which  has  attended  its  cultivation  in  Europe,  it  is  a  proper 
subject  of  consideration,  wiiether  it  might  not  be  advanta- 
geously introduced  among  us  as  a  fertilizer.  It  grows  freely 
in  all  except  calcareous  soils,  and  is  best  suited  to  such  as  have 
a  subsoil  charged  with  iron.  It  is  hardy,  not  liable  to  in- 
jury from  insects,  grows  rapidly  and  with  an  abundance  of 
stems,  leaves  and  roots.  The  latter  protect  the  plants  from 
drought,  by  penetrating  throvigh  the  sv;bsoil  for  a  depth  of 
more  than  two  feet,  which  they  break  up  and  prepare,  in  the 
most  efficient  manner,  for  succeeding  crops 

THE  ADVANTAGES  Or  GREEN  MANTTRES 

Consist  pit'  :i  xpally  in  the  addition  of  vegetable   matter. 


ORG^^MO    MANT3RES.  77 

which  they  furnish  to  the  soil.  The  presence  of  this,  aids  in 
the  liberation  of  those  mineral  ingredients,  Avhich  are  there 
locked  up,  and  which  on  being  set  free,  act  with  so  much 
advantage  to  the  '•'•op.  The  roots  also,  exert  a  power  in  ef- 
fecting this  decomposition,  beyond  any  other  known  agents, 
either  of  nature  or  ai :.  Their  minute  fibres  are  brought  into 
contact  with  the  eleme.its  of  the  soil,  and  they  act  upon 
them  with  a  force  peculiar  to  themselves  alone.  Theii 
agency  is  far  more  efficacious  for  this  purpose  than  the  in 
tensest  heat  or  strongest  acids,  persuading  the  elements  to 
give  up  for  their  own  use,  Avhat  is  essential  to  their  maturity 
and  perfection.  By  substituting  a  crop  for  a  naked  fallow, 
we  have  all  the  fibres  of  the  roots  throughout  the  field,  aid- 
ing the  decomposition  which  is  slowly  going  forward  in 
every  soil. 

Clover  and  most  broad-leaved  plants,  draw  largely  for 
their  sustenance  from  the  air,  especially  when  aided  by  the 
application  of  gypsum.  By  its  long  tap  roots,  clover  also 
draws  much  from  the  subsoil ;  as  all  plants  appropriate  such 
saline  substances  as  are  necessary  to  their  maturity,  and 
which  are  brought  to  their  roots  in  a  slate  of  solution,  by 
the  up-welling  moisture  from  beneath.  This  last  is  fre- 
quently a  great  source  of  improvement  to  the  soil.  The 
amount  of  carbon  drawn  from  the  air  in  the  state  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  imder  favorable  cir- 
cumstances of  soil  and  crop,  is  very  great ;  and  when  buried 
beneath  the  sxu-face,  all  are  saved  and  yield  their  fertility  to 
the  land  ;  ^vhile  such  vegetation  as  decays  on  the  surface, 
loses  much  of  its  value  by  evaporation  and  drainage.  In 
the  green  state,  fermentation  is  rapid,  and  by  resolving  the 
matter  of  plants  into  their  elements,  it  fits  the  ground  at  once 
for  a  succeeding  crop. 

Additional  manures  cannot  be  more  particularly  specified 
here.  It  is  sufficient  to  add,  that  every  portion  of  vegeta- 
ble or  animal  substances,  and  many  "vvhich  are  purely  mine- 
ral, may  be  used  on  the  fields  with  the  utmost  advantage  to 
the  farmer.  Intelligent  observation,  experience,  and  that 
knowledge  which  he  will  acquire  from  the  best  modern  ag- 
ricultural writings  of  the  present  day,  will  enable  him  to  adapt 
them  in  the  most  judicious  manner,  to  his  soil  and  crops. 

THE    FALLOW    SYSTEM. 

As  a  means  of  enriching  lands,  this  was  formerly  much 
practised,  but  it  is  now  em  rsly  discarded    by  intelligent 


78  AMERPCAN    AGRICULTURE. 

farmers  It  consists  in  plowing  ap  the  land  and  exposing  it 
naked  to  the  elements,  ^vhenevel•  the  exhaustion  by  tillage 
requires  it.  This  practice  is  founded  on  the  principle,  that 
plants  'gradually  exhaust  the  soil  of  such  soluble  food,  potash, 
soda,  and  other  materials,  as  are  necessary  to  their  support ; 
and  unless  they  are  again  given  to  it  in  manures,  in  a  form  suit- 
ed to  their  immediate  appropriation  by  plants,  time  is  requisite 
for  dissolving  them  in  the  soil,  so  as  to  enable  them  again  to 
support  vegetation  profitably.  Besides  the  loss  resulting 
from  the  frequent  idleness  of  the  land,  naked  fallows  have  this 
further  disadvantage,  and  especially  in  light  and  loose  soils ; 
they  are  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  svm  and  rains,  and 
by  evaporation  and  drainage,  are  exhausted  of  much  of  their 
soluble,  vegetable  food. 

This  system,  bad  as  it  is,  may  yet  be  absolutely  necessary, 
where  grain  alone  is  iraised  and  no  inaniire  is  applied.  But 
it  is  always  avoidable,  by  substituting  fallow  crops,  as  they 
are  termed,  potatoes,  swede  turneps,  and  other  well-hoed 
crops,  with  manure  ;  or  clover,  or  other  green  crops,  as  above 
detailed  ;  by  w^hich  the  land  is  cleared  of  weeds  and  suffi- 
ciently enriched  for  succeeding  cultivation.  If  they  have 
been  kept  in  good  condition  by  top-dressing,  meadows  are 
equally  fitted  for  the  ditferent  species  of  grains  or  other  crops, 
as  if  the  land  had  been  fallowed  ;  and  pastures  ansvyer  the 
same  purpose,  without  the  aid  of  other  manures  than  such 
as  have  incidentally  accumulated  apon  them. 


TERIGATION    AND    DRAINING.  79 


CHAPTER    IV. 


IRUrGATION  AND  DRAINING. 

Irrigation  may  properly  enough  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  manures;  as  the  materials  which  it  provides  are 
not  only  food  for  plants,  but  they  aid  also  in  procuring  it 
from  other  sources.  "Water  is  of  indispensable  necessity  to 
vegetable  life ;  and  the  great  quantity  of  it  demanded  for 
this  purpose,  is  in  most  climates,  amply  provided  by  nature 
in  the  stores  of  rain  and  dew  which  moisten  the  earth,  and 
especially  during  the  early  growth  of  vegetation,  when  it  is 
most  required.  In  countries  where  rain  seldom  or  never 
falls,  as  in  parts  of  South  America,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere, 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  surface,  is  so  rapid  under  their 
clear  skies,  that  excessive  deposites  of  dew,  generally  supply 
the  plants  with  all  the  moisture  which  they  need.  The 
same  effect  takes  place  in  our  transparent,  summer  atmos- 
phere, throughout  most  of  the  United  States ;  and  it  is  to 
the  presence  of  copious  dews,  on  our  rich,  well  cultivated 
fields,  that  much  of  the  luxuriance  and  success  is  due, 
which  has  ever  attended  enlightened  and  judicious  American 
husbandry. 

Besides  the  moisture  that  abounds  in  the  atmosphere,  (but 
which  is  not  always  available  in  rains  and  dews  to  the 
extent  desired  for  the  wants  of  vegetation),  and  that  wi.ich 
imperceptibly  ascends  from  remote  depths  in  the  earth,  and 
contributes  to  the  support  of  plants ;  it  is  a  practice  coeval 
with  the  earliest  history  of  agriculture,  to  bring  artificial 
waters  upon  the  cultivated  fields  and  make  them  tributary 
to  the  support  of  the  crops.  In  many  countries  this  sys- 
tem is  indispensable  to  secure  their  maturity ;  for  although 
dews  accomplish  the  object  in  a  measure,  they  do  not  sup- 
ply it  in  the  quantity  required  to  sustain  a  vigorous  growth. 
We  find,  in  looking  to  the  practice  of  Egypt  and  the  B?^bary 
States  in  Africa  ;  of  Syria,  Babylon,  and  other  parts  of 
Asia ;  Italy,  Spain  ai:d  elsewhere  in  Europe,  in  each  of 
which  husbandry  ear/^.y  attained  a  high  rank,  that  irrigation 


80  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

was  extensively  introduced.  Damascus  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  on  record,  (for  it  is  mentioned  in  Genesis  as 
existing  nearly  4,000  years  ago);  and  notwithstanding  its 
numerous  successive  masters,  and  its  frequent  plunder  and 
devastation,  it  is  still  a  flourishing  city,  though  in  the  midst 
of  deserts.  This  is  no  doubt  owng  to  the  waters  derived 
f"rom  the  "  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,"  which 
are  conducted  above  the  city,  where  they  gush  from  the 
fountains,  and  thence  overspread  the  gardens  and  water  all 
the  adjacent  plain.  Had  it  not  been  for  irrigation,  Damas- 
cus Avould  doubtless,  ages  ago,  have  followed  Palmyra,  the 
Tadmor  of  the  wilderness,  into  utter  abandonment  and  ruin. 
On  no  other  principle  than  a  systematic  and  extensive  prac- 
tice of  irrigation,  can  we  account  for  the  once  populous 
condition  of  Jiidea,  Idumea,  and  other  vast  regions  in  the 
East ;  many  of  which,  to  the  eye  of  the  modern  traveller, 
present  nothing  but  the  idea  of  irreclaimable  sterility  and 
desolation.  The  possession  of  the  ♦'  upper  and  nether 
springs,"  "was  as  necessary  to  the  occupant,  as  possession 
of  the  soil. 

In  those  countries  where  the  drought  is  excessive,  and 
rains  are  seldom  to  be  dejieuded  upon,  \vater  is  led  on  to  the 
fields  containing  all  the  cultivated  crops,  and  is  made  subser- 
vient to  the  growth  of  each.  But  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  middle  and  northern  part  of  Europe,  where  the  vege- 
tation ordinarily  attains  a  satisfactory  size  without  its  aid, 
irrigation  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  grass  or  meadow 
lands. 

All  ivaters  are  suitable  for  irrigatio7i,  excepting  those 
containing  an  excess  of  some  mineral  substances,  deleterious 
to  vegetable  life.  Such  are  the  drainage  from  peat  swamps, 
from  saline  and  mineral  springs,  and  from  ore  beds  of  various 
kinds ;  but  those  are  most  frequent,  in  which  iron  is  held  in 
solution.  Of  tilt  spring  or  ordinary  river  waters,  those  are 
the  best  which  are  denominated  hard,  and  which  owe  this 
quality  to  the  presence  of  sulphate  or  carbonate  of  lime  or 
magnesia.  Such  waters  as  are  cnarged  with  fertilizing  sub- 
stances, that  have  been  Avashed  out  of  soils  by  recent  floods, 
are  admirably  suited  to  irrigation.  Dr.  Dana,  est'.mates  the 
quantity  of  salts  in  solution,  and  geine  or  humus  'vegetable 
matters),  which  were  borne  sea-ward  past  Lowell,  on  the 
Merrimac  Rive'  in  1838,  (a  season  of  unusual  freshets),  as 
reachUig  the  enormous  amount  of  810,000  tons;  enough  to 
have  given  a  good  dressing  to  100,000  acres  of  land.  Turbit^ 


IRRIGATION    AND    DRAINING.  81 

Waters  that  nave  flowed  out  of  the  sewers  of  cities,  or  past 
slaughter-houses  and  certain  manufactories,  and  received  the 
rich  contributions  of  vegetable  food  thereby  afforded,  are  the 
most  beneficial.  Meadows  thus  irrigated,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Edinburgh,  have  rented  by  the  acre,  at  the  large 
sum  of  $250  per  annum ;  a  price  predicated  not  only  on  the 
enormous  amount  of  grass  yielded,  but  on  the  high  prices  at 
which  it  was  retailed  in  that  city.  But  when  none  of  these 
can  be  procured,  pure  spring  water,  apparently  destitute  of 
any  soluble  matters,  may  be  advantageously  used. 

Additional  effects  of  Irrigation.  Besides  its  drainage  oi 
fertile  matters  from  remote  distances,  which  are  deposited 
on  the  fields  overflown,  water  freely  absorbs  the  gases,  (car- 
bonic acid,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  &c.,)  in  proportions  alto? 
gether  different  from  those  existing  in  the  air,  and  brings 
them  to  the  roots,  by  which  they  are  greedily  appropriated; 
and  in  its  onward,  agitated  progress  over  the  field,  it  again 
absorbs  them  from  the  air,  again  to  be  given  up  when  de- 
manded by  the  roots.  When  the  water  is  permitted  to 
remain  stagnant  on  the  surface,  this  good  effect  ceases  ;  and 
so  far  from  its  promoting  the  growth  of  the  useful  and  cul- 
tivated grasses,  they  speedily  perish,  and  a  race  of  sour 
and  worthless  aquatic  plants  spring  up  to  supply  their 
place. 

Another  and  i'niportant  office  that  water  fulfils  in  minis- 
tering to  the  groicth  of  vegetation,  is  in  disposing  the  soil 
Jo  those  changes,  which  are  essential  to  its  greatest  fertility. 
Gypsum  requires  460,  and  lime  778  times  its  bulk  of  water 
at  60°  Far.  to  dissolve  them.  Others  among  the  mineral 
constituents  of  plants,  also  require  the  presence  of  large 
quantities  of  water,  to  fit  them  for  acting  on  the  soil,  and  to 
adapt  them  for  vegetable  assimilation. 

TIME  FOR  APPLYING  WATER  TO  MEADOWS. 

In  those  regions  where  the  winters  are  not  severe,  water 
may  be  kept  on  the  fields  during  the  entire  season  of  frosts. 
This  prevents  their  access  to  the  ground,  and  on  the  ap- 
proach of  warm  weather,  the  grasses  at  once  start  into  life, 
and  yield  an  early  and  abundant  growth.  But  in  general, 
this  system  cannot  be  successfully  practiced.  The  water 
may  be  admitted  at  proper  intervals,  freely  during  the  spring 
and  early  part  of  the  summer,  when  vegetation  is  either 
just  commencing  or  going  forward  rapidly.  It  is  sufficient 
to  flood  the  surface  thoroughly,  and  then  shut  off  the  watej 
K* 


62  AMERICAN   AGRICULTtTRE. 

for  a  time.  In  very  dry  weather,  this  may  be  done  with 
advantage  every  night.  Continued  watering  under  a  bright 
6un,  is  an  umiatural  condition  with  upland  grasses,  and 
can  never  be  long  persisted  in  without  proving  fatal  to 
the  ji.  Neither  should  the  water  be  applied  after  the  grasses 
have  conuneuced  ripening.  Nature  is  the  proper  guide  in 
this,  as  in  mos  -f  the  operations  of  the  farmer  ;  and  it  will 
be  seen,  how  careful  she  is,  in  ordinary  seasons,  to  provide 
an  affluence  of  rains  for  the  tommencement  of  vegetation, 
while  she  as  carefully  withholds  them  when  it  approaches 
maturity.  Immediately  after  the  grass  is  cut,  the  water  may 
be  again  let  on  as  occasion  requires,  till  the  approach  of  cold 
weather.  Pastures  may  be  irrigated  from  time  to  time,  as 
the  weather  may  demand,  throughout  the  entire  season. 

THE  MANNER  OF  IRRIGATING. 

This  must  depend  on  the  situation  of  the  surface  and  the 
supply  of  water.  Sometimes,  reservoirs  are  made  for  its 
reception  from  rains  or  inundations ;  and  at  others,  they 
are  collected  at  vast  expense,  from  springs  found  by  deep 
excavations,  and  led  out  by  extensive  subterraneous  ditching. 
The  usual  source  of  supply,  however,  is  from  streams  or 
rivulets,  or  copious  springs,  which  discharge  their  water  on 
elevated  ground.  The  former  are  dammed  up,  to  turn  the 
water  into  ditches  or  aqueducts,  through  which  it  is  con- 
ducted to  the  fields,  where  it  is  divided  into  smaller  rills, 
till  it  finally  disappears.  When  it  is  desirable  tp  bring  more 
water  upou  meadows  than  is  required  for  saturating  the 
ground,  and  its  escape  to  fields  below  is  to  be  avoided,  other 
ditches  should  be  made  on  the  lou'er  sides,  to  arrest  and 
convey  away  the  surplus  water. 

The  advantages  of  irrigation  are  so  manifest,  that  they 
should  never  be  neglected,  when  the  means  for  securing  them 
are  within  economical  reach.  To  detennine  what  economy 
in  this  case  is,  we  have  to  estimate  from  careful  experiment, 
the  equivalent  needed  in  annual  dressing  with  manures,  to 
produce  the  same  amount  of  grass  as  would  be  gained  by 
irrigation  ;  and  to  offset  the  cost  of  the  manure,  we  must 
reckon  the  interest  on  the  permanent  fixtures  of  the  dam  and 
sluices,  and  the  annual  expense  of  attention  and  repair. 

The  quality  of  grass  from  irrigated  meadows  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  that  grown  upon  dry  soils ;  and  for  pas- 
turage, it  is  found  that  animals  do  better  in  dry  seasons  upon 
the  former,  and  in  wet.  upoi  the    atter.     In  Europe,  where 


IRRIGATION    AND   DRAINING.  8S 

the  disease  is  common,  sheep  are  more  liable  to  ''■ot  upoa 
irrigated  and  marshy  lands,  than  on  such  as  are  free  from 
excessive  moisture. 

The  kind  of  Soils  suited  to  Irrigation  — Light  porous 
soils,  and  particularly  gravels  and  sands,  are  the  most  bene- 
fitted by  irrigation.  Tenacious  and  clay  soils  are  but  slight 
ly  improved  by  it,  unless  first  made  porous  by  underdraining. 
It  is  not  only  important  that  water  be  brought  on  to  the 
ground,  but  it  is  almost  equally  important,  that  it  should  pass 
off  immediately  after  accomplishing  the  objects  sought. 

The  increase  from  the.  application  of  icater,  is  sometimes 
fourfold,  when  the  soil,  the  season  and  the  water  are  all 
favorable,  and  it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled.  Many  fields, 
which  in  their  natural  condition,  scarcely  yield  a  bite  of 
grass  for  cattle,  when  thoroughly  irrigated,  will  give  a  good 
growth  for  years,  and  without  the  aid  of  any  manures. 

UNDER  DRAINING  HEAVY  AND  TENACIOUS  CLAY  LANDS. 

The  advancement  of  agriculture  in  this  country  during 
the  few  last  years,  and  the  high  price  of  farming  lands  and 
their  products,  within  convenient  distances  of  our  larger 
markets,  fully  justify  the  commencement  of  an  intelligent 
system  of  draining  on  such  lands  as  require  it.  This  system 
has  for  many  years  been  introduced  and  largely  practiced  in 
England  and  Scotland,  and  has  resulted  in  the  most  signal 
success. 

The  plan  first  adopted  was,  to  excavate  the  land  in  paral- 
lel lines,  at  intervals  of  16  to  25  feet,  and  to  a  depth  of  two 
or  three  feet,  forming  a  slightly-inclined  plane  on  the  bottom, 
which  was  from  three  to  six  inches  wide,  and  gradually  en- 
larging as  it  approached  the  surface.  The  narrowest  drains 
were  arched  with  inverted  turf  and  clay,  at  such  distance 
from  the  bottom,  as  wovtld  leave  the  requisite  space  for  the 
escape  of  whatever  water  might  filter  through  the  soil. 
Others  were  formed  with  continuous  arched  tiles,  laid  on  a 
sole,  (a  flat  tile  of  the  same  material,)  or  on  a  board  placed  on 
the  bottom,  forming  an  uninterrupted  conductor.  Larger 
ditches  were  filled  with  rubble-stone,  in  some  instances 
brush,  to  a  sufficient  depth,  and  then  covered  with  soil.  In 
all  cases,  the  smaller  ones  communicated  by  their  outlets, 
with  a  large,  open  drain,  which  led  the  water  from  the  field. 
These  drains  were  always  below  the  reach  of  the  ploAV,  thug 
leaving  the  whole  surface  c  ■  the  lands  free  from  any  obsiruc 
tion  to  cultivatioji 


Si  AMERICAN    AGRICULTLRIsr.  ' 

Two  recent  improvements  have  been  introduced,  which 
materially  diminish  the  expense,  while  they  enhance  the 
benefits  of  the  system.  They  consist  in  sinking  the  drain 
to  four  feet,  and  using  burnt  clay  or  tile  pipes,  one  and  a  half 
to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  12  to  18  inches  in  length, 
connected  together,  by  allowing  the  descending  end  to  enter 
the  next  beloAV  it,  as  a  socket,  or  by  placing  the  ends  close  to 
each  other.  The  slight  opening  at  each  joint,  with  small 
holes  perforating  the  top  of  the  tiles,  is  found  to  be  sufficient 
to  admit  all  the  water  which  falls  into  tlie  drain ;  Avhile  the 
increased  depth  at  which  the  drainage  takes  place,  draws 
the  water  from  a  much  greater  distance.  With  the  depth 
indicated,  it  has  been  found,  that  the  drains  instead  of  being 
required  once  in  16  feet,  may  be  placed  at  intervals  of  35 
to  40,  and  accomplish  the  object  with  equal  success,  a?id  in 
less  time.  Tlie  expense  -of  the  former  plan,  was  from  $20  to 
330  per  acre,  while  the  last  is  only  from  $12  to  SI 8.  For 
some  of  the  stifTest  clays  and  loosest  gravels,  these  deep  drains 
are  not  so  well  suited ;  as  the  water  scarcely  filters  through 
the  stiff  sttbsoil  of  the  former,  and  drains  too  deeply  from  the 
latter. 

The  advantages  of  nnflerdraining  ^xe  numerous  and  im- 
portant. Tlley  take  away  all  the  surplus  water  which  exists 
in  heavy  or  tenacious  soils,  and  which  in  wet  seasons,  is  a  seri- 
ous impediment  to  the  successful  growth  and  perfection  of 
vegetation  ;  thus  always  hisuring  a  ftiU  crop,  when  frequently, 
not  one-fourth  of  a  crop  is  matured  on  similar  uudrained 
soils.  They  are  susceptible  of  earlier  preparation  for  the  re- 
ception of  crops  in  spring,  by  furnishing  a  dry,  warm  soil, 
^vhich  would  otherwise  not  admit  of  cultivation,  except  in 
an  advanced  stage  of  the  season ;  thus  enabling  the 
farmer  to  raise  a  greater  variety  of  products,  where  only  a 
few  were  adapted  to  the  soil  before  ;  and  to  these,  it  gives 
several  weeks  additional  growth,  and  an  improved  quality. 
The  soil  is  also  more  porous  and  friable,  and  therefore,  much 
more  easily  tilled.  It  saves  all  the  trouble  and  ^vaste  of  sur- 
face drai'js  and  open  furrows,  which  require  that  much  ol 
the  field  be  left  almost  in  an  unproductive  state,  to  serve  as 
conductors  of  the  surplus  ■u^ater.  The  rains  falling  on  the 
convex  surfaces  of  the  lands,  run  olf  rapidly  into  the  fur- 
rows, and  not  only  withhold  from  the  soil  those  benefit, 
which  would  result  from  their  absorption,  but  they  carry  with 
them  much  of  the  fine  soil,  which  is  thus  allowed  to  Avaste. 

Rain  water  is  o*  arged  with  some  of  the  most  importaui 


IRRIGATION    ANU    DRAINING.  &0 

elements  of  nutrition  for  plants,  and  especially  contains  cxuv 
siderable  proportions  of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  li 
these  be  permitted  to  percolate  through  the  soil,  the  roots  of 
the  plants,  or  in  their  absence,  the  elements  of  the  soil  itself 
aDsorb  and  form  permanent  combinations  with  them.  Air 
also  holds  vegetable  food,  and  it  is  necessary  that  this  should 
penetrate  through  every  portion  of  the  soil  where  the  fibres 
of  the  roots  exist.  Soils  which  are  saturated  with  Avater,  do 
not  admit  of  any  air,  unless  the  small  proportion  combined 
with  the  water  ;  and  from  all  such,  this  vital  adjunct  of 
vegetation  is  excluded.  The  porosity  of  the  land  thus  se- 
cured, facilitates  the  admission  and  escape  of  heat,  and  this 
last  condition  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  iu  promoting  the 
deposition  of  dews. 

The  dense  mass  of  saturated  soil  is  impervious  to  air,  and 
remains  cold  and  clammy.  By  draining  it  below  the  soil, 
the  warm  rains  penetrate  the  entire  mass,  and  there  diffuse 
their  genial  temperature  through  the  roots.  Immediately 
pressing  after  these,  the  Avarm  air  rushes  in,  and  supplies  its 
portion  of  augmented  heat  to  the  land.  Porous  soils  thus 
readily  imbibe  heat,  and  they  as  readily  part  with  it ;  every 
portion  of  their  own  surfaces  radiating  it,  when  the  air  in 
contact  with  them  is  below  their  own  temperature.  This 
condition  is  precisely  what  is  adapted  to  secure  the 
deposit  of  the  dews,  so  refreshing,  and  during  a  season  of 
drought,  so  indispensable  to  the  progress  of  vegetation. 
Dew  can  only  be  condensed  on  surfaces,  which  are  beloAV  the 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  air ;  and  rapid  radiation  of 
the  heat  imbibed  during  the  warmth  of  a  summer's  day,  is 
necessary  to  secure  it  in  profusion  for  the  demands  of  luxu- 
riant vegetation,  in  the  absence  of  frequent  showers. 

An  insensible  deposit  of  moisture,  precisely  analogous  to 
dew,  is  constantly  going  forward  in  deep,  rich,  porous  soils. 
Wherever  the  air  penetrates  them,  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  soils  themselves  possess,  it  not  only  imparts  to  them 
a  portion  of  its  exccess  of  heat,  but  with  it  also,  so  much  ot 
its  combined  moisture,  as  its  thus  lessened  capacity  for  re- 
taining latent  heat,  compels  it  to  relinquish.  To  the  reflect- 
ing mind,  imbued  with  even  the  first  principles  of  science, 
these  considerations  will  be  justly  deemed  of  the  highest  con- 
sequence to  the  rapii  and  luxuriant  growth,  and  full  devel- 
opment of  vegetable  life. 

Another  essential  henejit  derivable  from  drained  Lands, 
consists  in  the  advantageous  u»«  which  can  be  made  of  tht 


86  AMER  JAN    AGRICrLTURE. 

subsoil  plow.  If  there  be  no  escape  for  the  moisture  which 
may  have  set-  led  below  the  surface,  the  subsoil  plow  has 
been  fouud  inj  u-ious  ra.;her  than  beneficial.  By  loosening 
the  earth,  it  admits  a  larger  deposit  of  Avater,  which  requires 
a  longer  time  for  evaporation  and  insensible  drainage  to 
discharge.  When  the  -water  escapes  freely,  the  use  of  the 
subsoil  plow  is  attended  with  the  best  results.  The  earth 
being  thus  pulverized  to  a  much  greater  depth,  and  incorpo- 
rated with  the  descending  pa  tides  of  vegetable  sustenance, 
affords  an,  enlarged  range  for  i  le  roots  of  plants;  and  in  pro- 
poriion  to  its  extent,  furnishes  thorn  with  additional  means  of 
growth.  The  farmer  thus  has  a  means  of  augmenting  his 
soil,  and  its  capacity  for  production,  wholly  independent  of 
increasing  his  superficial  acres  ;  for  with  many  crops,  it  mat- 
ters not  in  the  quantity  of  their  production,  whether  he  OAvns 
and  cultivates  100  acres  of  soil,  one  foot  deep,  or  200  acres 
of  soil,  half  a  foot  in  depth.  With  the  latter,  however,  he 
has  to  provide  twice  the  capital  in  the  first  purchase,  is  at 
twice  the  cost  in  fencing,  planting  and  tillage,  and  pays 
twice  the  taxes.  The  underdrainedand  subsoiled  fields  have 
the  further  advantage,  of  securing  the  groAvth  and  steady  de- 
velopement  of  their  crops  during  a  season  of  drought ;  as 
they  derive  their  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  in  part,  as 
before  explained,  and  from  greater  depths,  which  are  fre- 
quently unaffected  by  the  parching  heat.  This  secures  to 
them  a  large  yield,  while  all  around  is  parched  and  withered.* 
A  more  enlarged  and  general,  or  what  may  justly  be 
termed,  a  philanthropic  view  of  this  system,  will  readily  de- 
tect considerations  of  g;reat  moment ;  in  the  general  heathful- 
ness  of  climate,  which  would  result  from  the  drainage  of 
large  areas,  that  are  now  saturated,  and  in  many  instances 
covered  with  stagnant  waters,  and  which  are  suffered  to  pol- 
lute the  atmosphere  by  their  pestilential  exhalations. 

SPRING  AND    SWAMP  DRAINING. 

Springs  are  sometimes  discovered,  not  by  a  free  or  open 
discharge  of  their  water,  but  in  extensive  plats  of  wet,  boggy 
lands,  which  are  of  no  further  use  than  to  mire  the  cattle,  and 
bear  a  small  quantity  of  inferior,  bog  hay.     These  springs 

*  The  ex;  erienced  reader  will  sometimes  notice  the  same  ideas,  re- 
jeated  under  different  heads.  He  must  bear  in  mind,  that  this  work  is 
intended /or  learners;  and  that  it  \3  of  more  consequence,  thoroug;hly 
to  impress  their  minds  with  imj  ortant  principles,  that  to  study  brf  vi* 
ty  in  communicating  them. 


ir.ItlG^TION    AND    DRAINING.  8/* 

should  be  sought,  at  the  highest  point  where  the  ground 
appears  moistened,  and  led  away  to  a  ravine  or  rivulet,  by  a 
drain,  sufficiently  deep  to  prevent  the  escape  of  any  of  the 
water  into  the  adjacent  soil  ;  unless,  as  it  sometimes  happens, 
the  position  and  quality  of  water  are  suited  to  irrigation, 
when  it  may  be  condu«ted  over  the  field  for  that  purpose. 

Siccoyij^s  and  Peat  beds  occur  frequently  in  a  hilly  country  - 
These  aie  low,  level,  Avet  lands,  whose  constant  saturation 
with  water,  prevents  their  cultivation  with  any  useful  plants 
The  first  object  in  etfecting  their  improvement,  is  to  find  an 
outlet  for  the  escape  of  the  water,  to  a  depth  of  three  to  five 
feet  below  the  general  surface,  according  to  the  area  to  be  re^ 
clainz^vl ;  the  greatest  depth  above  specified,  being  frequently 
necessary  to  the  effectual  drainage,  a  ^  all  times,  of  an  extend- 
ed field.  If  the  water  in  the  swamp  has  its  origin  in  numer- 
ous springs  from  the  adjoining  hills,  a  ditch  should  be  dug 
around  the  entire  outer  edge,  where  it  meets  the  ascending 
land.  If  the  water  be  derive.d  from  a  rivvilet,  a  broad  ditch 
should  be  made  as  direct  as  possible  from  the  entrance  to  its 
outlet,  and  deep  enough  to  lead  off"  all  the  water.  If  this 
is  found  insufficient,  additional  ones  may  be  made  wherever 
required. 


CHAPTER    V. 


MECHANICAL  DIVISION  OF  SOILS. 

SPADING. 

After  selecting  a  proper  soil  and  placing  it  in  a  proper 
condition,  by  manuring,  draining,  &c.,  the  next  most  import- 
ant consideration  is,  the  further  preparation  of  the  land  fo» 
the  reception  of  the  seed.  In  small  patches  of  highly-culti- 
vated land,  spading  is  resorted  to,  for  breaking  up  and  pul- 
verizina;  the  ground  more  effectually  than  can  be  done  witn 
the  plow.  This  is  the  case  with  many  of  the  market 
gardens,  in  tha  neighborhood  of  our  large  cities,  and  with 
large  portions  of  Holland,  Flanders  and  other  countries  of 
Europe.      It   L»   even  contended  b;   many  intelligent   and 


88  AMEPaCAN   AGRICULTURE. 

practical  farmers  in  Great  Britain,  where  labor  is  about  half, 
and  land  and  agricultural  products  are  nearly  twice  the 
average  prices  ^vith  us,  that  spade-husbandry  can  be  adopted 
for  general  tillage  crops,  with  decided  advantage  to  the 
farmer.  However  this  may  be  abroad,  it  is  certain  it  cannot 
be  practised  in  this  cciintry,  to  any  extent,  imtil  some  very 
remote  period. 

There  are  many  important  advantages  in  the  deep  and 
minute  division  of  the  soil,  resviltiug  from  the  very  thorough 
spading  practised  by  the  best  gardeners,  which  we  should 
endeavor  to  incorporate  in  every  tillage  system,  Avith  the 
use  of  the  plow  alone.  This  may  be  done,  and  the  advan- 
tages of  spade-husbandrj'^  measurably  secured,  and  at  one 
fourth  the  expense,  b}."  the  use  of  the  best  surface  and  sub- 
soil plows,  if  strong  teams  and  skilful  ploAvmen  are  employed 
to  work  them. 

PLOWING. 

This  is  the  most  important  of  the  mechanical  operations  of 
the  farm.  The  time,  the  depth  and  the  manner  of  plowing 
must  depend  on  the  crops  to  be  raised,  the  fertility  and  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  and  other  circumstances. 


The  above  is  a  cut  of  the  Eagle  plow.  This  is  a  good 
model  of  a  two-horse  plow ;  being  easy  of  draught  to 
the  team,  and  turning  a  deep,  wide  furrow,  with  little  effort  to 
the  plowman.  It  is  made  with  a  cast-iron  mold-board,  share 
and  land-side,  all  in  detached  parts,  which  are  easily  re- 
placed when  worn.  It  has  the  dial-clevis  at  the  end  of  the 
beam,  which  is  an  important  improvement  for  controlling 
the  direction  of  the  plow  and  regulating  its  depth.  Also 
the  draft-rod,  which  is  guided  by  -he  clevis,  ajid  attached 
to  the   beair.  near   *,he  handles.      The  wheel   lessens   the 


MECHANICAL    DIVISION    OF    SOILS.  89 

draught,  facilitates  turning  the  ploAv  at  the  end  of  the  fur- 
row, and  regufiates  its  depth.  The  cutter  or  coulter,  which 
is  made  of  "wrought  iron,  "vvith  steel  edge,  divides  the  sod  or 
earth  before  the  plow,  thus  lessening  the  draught,  and  giving 
a  smoother  edge  to  the  furrow. 

Plowing  Clay  lands.  —  Whenever  practicable,  these 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  for  planting  and  sowing  the 
ensuing  spring.  (Foi  exceptions,  see  page  18;  and  for  fur- 
ther directions  and  observations  on  the  subject  of  plowing, 
see  management  of  soils  preceding,  and  various  subsequent 
tillage  crops.)  The  tenacity  of  the  soil  may  thus  be  tem- 
porarily broken  up  by  the  winter  frosts,  its  particles  more 
thoroughly  separated,  and  the  whole  mass  reduced  to  a  finer 
tilth  than  can  possibly  be  effected  in  any  other  manner. 
A  still  further  and  important  advantage  from  this  practice 
ensues,  from  the  attraction  existing  between  the  clay  and 
those  gases  that  are  furnished  from  the  atmosphere,  snow, 
rains  and  dews.  In  consequence  of  being  thus  thrown  up 
and  coming  in  contact,  with  them,  it  seizes  upon  the  ammo- 
nia and  carbonic  and  ni'i^ric  acids,  which  are  in  the  air,  and 
holds  them  for  the  future'use  of  the  crops ;  while  their  great 
affinity  for  manures,  effectually  prevents  the  waste  of  such 
as  are  in  it.  There  is  an  additional  benefit  sometimes  deri- 
vable from  this  practice,  in  turning  over  the  soil  late  in  the 
season,  and  after  such  worms  and  insects  as  are  injurious 
to  the  crops,  have  taken  up  their  winter  quarters.  They 
are  thus  thrown  out  and  exposed  to  the  elements,  when 
they  are  too  chilled  to  seek  seclusion  again,  and  are  thus 
destroyed. 

The  furrows  of  clay  soils,  should  be  turned  over  so  as  to 
lap  on  the  preceding,  and  lie  at  an  angle  of  45°,  as  il'ustra- 
ted  by  ♦^he  following  cut : 


w 

Fig.  2. 

and  for  this  purpose,  the  depth  of  the  furrow  slice  should  be 
about  1  wo  thirds  its  width.  Thus  a  furrow  six  inches  deep, 
should  be  about  nine  inches  wide  ;  or  if  eight  inches  deep, 
it  should  be  twelve  inches  wide.  This  will  allow  of  the 
furrows  lying  regularly  and  evenly,  and  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion for  the  drainage  of  the  soil,  the  fres  circulation  of  air, 
and  the  most  etHcient  action  of  frosts,  which  in  this  way, 
have  access  to  every  sid?  of  them.     Land  tluxs  thrown  up. 


90  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

is  found  to  be  finely  pulverized  after  the  frosts  leave  it,  and  it 
is  comparatively  dry  and  ready  for  use,  some  time  earlier 
than  such  as  is  not  plowed  till  spring.  For  sowing,  land 
prepared  in  this  manner  requires  no  additional  plowing,  but 
it  is  better  fitted  for  the  reception  of  seed  that  it  can  be  by 
any  further  operation,  unless  by  a  slight  harrowing,  if  the 
surface  is  too  rough.  The  different  kinds  of  grain  or  peas 
may  be  dibbled  in,  or  sown  broad-cast  and  covered  by  the 
narro^v.  If  soAvn.  very  early,  the  grass  and  clover  seeds 
require  no  covering,  but  find  their  best  position  in  the  slight 
depressions  which  are  everywhere  made  by  the  frost,  and 
which  the  subsequent  rains  and  winds*  fill  up,  and  cover 
sufficiently  to  secure  a  certain  growth.  When  a  field  is 
intended  for  planting,  and  is  thus  plowed  in  the  preceding 
autumn,  in  some  instances,  and  especially  Avhen  the  soil  is 
full  of  vegetable  manures,  (as  from  a  rich  green  sward),  a 
single  furrow,  where  the  seed  is  to  be  dropped,  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring. 

If  the  land  has  been  previously  cultivated,  (not  in  SAvard), 
and  is  designed  for  planting,  a  stiff  clay  is  sometimes  ridged 
up,  by  turning  a  double  furrow,  one  on  each  side,  and  so 
close  together,  a^  partially  to  lap  upon  a  narrow  and  unbro- 
ken surface  ;  thus  leaving  tlie  greatest  elevations  and  de- 
pressions, which  can  conveniently  be  made  with  the  plow. 
This  is  shown  by  the  annexed  cut. 


a,  a,  is  surface  of  the  unplowed  ground,  b,  b,  h,  portions  of 
earth  not  turned  by  the  plow,  c,  c,  c,  furrows  turned  over, 
d,  d,  d,  furrows  lapped  on  the  preceding.  By  this  means, 
the  frost  and  air  have  a  greater  surface  to  act  upon,  than  is 
afforded  by  thorough  plowing,  unless  it  be  in  a  firm  sod, 
Avhich  will  maintain  its  position  Avithout  crumbling.  The 
advantage  of  a  dry  surface  and  early  working,  are  equally 
secured  by  this  latter  method  ;  and  to  prepare  for  planting, 
the  furrows  need  only  to  be  split,  by  running  a  double-mold- 
board  plow  through  their  centre,  when  they  are  ready  for 
the  reception  of  the  seed. 

Flowing  sandy  or  dry  Soils. — These  require  flat  plowing, 
and  this  may  be  done  when  they  are  either  quite  wet  or  dry, 
but  never  till  wanted  for  use.     By  exposure  taieat,  rains  and 


MECHANICAL    DIVISION   OF    SOILS.  91 

winds,  the  light  soluble  manures  are  exhaled  or  washed  out, 
and  they  receive  little  compensation  for  this  waste,  in  any- 
corresponding  fertility  tl  .ey  derive  from  the  atmosphere  in 
return.  To  insure  tlat  plowing  on  an  old  sward,  the  depth 
of  the  furrow  should  be  about  one  half  its  width,  and  the 
lands  or  ridges,  should  be  made  as  wide  as  possible.  This  will 
give  more  evenness  and  uniformity  of  surface,  and  is  an  object 
of  importance,  where  it  is  to  be  again  laid  down  as  a  meadow. 
Some  prefer  for  this  purpose,  to  use  the  shifting  mold-board, 
side-hill  or  swivel  plow,  by  all  of  which  names  it  is 
known.  This  can  throw  the  furrow  always  in  the  same  di- 
rection, and  is  a  right  or  left  hand  plow  as  may  be  required. 

Depth  of  Ploiving. — All  cultivated  plants  are  benefitted 
by  a  deep,  permeable  soil,  through  which  their  roots  can 
penetrate  in  search  of  food  ;  and  although  depth  of  soil  is  not. 
fully  equivalent  to  its  superficial  extension,  it  is  evident,  that 
there  must  be  a  great  increase  of  product  from  this  cause. 
For  general  tillage  crops,  the  depth  of  soil  may  be  gradually 
augmented  to  about  twelve  inches,  with  decided  advantage. 
Such  as  are  appropriated  to  gardens  and  horticultural  pur- 
poses, may  be  deepened  fifteen,  and  even  eighteen  inches,  to 
the  manifest  profit  of  their  occupants.  But  whatever  is  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  the  ploAV  ought  to  turn  up  the  entire  mass, 
if  within  its  reach ;  and  what  is  beyond  it,  should  be  thorough- 
ly broken  up  by  the  subsoil  plow,  and  some  of  it  occasional- 
ly incorporated  with  that  upon  the  surface. 

The  subsoil  ought  not  to  be  brought  out  of  its  bed,  except 
in  small  quantities.  It  should  then  be  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere during  the  fall,  winter  and  .spring,  or  in  a  summer  fal- 
low ;  after  which,  and  as  a  necessary  preparation  for  a  crop, 
it  should  receive  such  mam"  ss  as  are  necessary  to  put  it 
at  once  into  a  productive  condition.  The  depth  of  the  soil 
can  alone  determine  the  depth  which  the  plow  should  work  ; 
and  when  the  former  is  too  shallow,  the  gradual  deepening 
of  it  should  be  sought,  by  the  use  of  proper  materials  for  im- 
provement, till  the  object  is  fully  attained.  Two  indift'erent 
soils  of  opposite  characters,  as  of  a  stiff  clay  and  sliding  sand, 
sometimes  occupy  the  relation  of  surface  and  subsoil  towards 
each  other"  and  when  intimately  mixed,  as  they  may  fre- 
quently be  oy  deep  plowing  alone,  and  then  subjected  to  the 
meliorating  influence  of  cultivation,  they  will  frequently 
produce  a  soil  of  great  value. 

Cross  ploiving  is  seldom  necessary,  except  to  break  up 
tough  s\\  ard  or  tenacious  soils,  and  the  former  is  more  ef- 


92  AMERICAN    AGRICUHtrtvE. 

fectually  subdued  by  one  thorough  plowing,  in  which  the 
sod  is  so  placed,  that  decomposition  Avill  rapidly  ensue ;  and 
the  latter  is  more  certainly  pulverized,  by  incorporal  ing  with 
it  such  vegetables,  and  fibrous  or  iinfermented  manures,  as 
will  produce  the  same  result  as  the  decaying  sod.  The  pre- 
sence of  these  in  the  soil  lessens  the  labor  of  cultivation, 
and  greatly  increases  the  product. 

Subsoil  Ploiving . — This  is  a  practice  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction,  and  it  has  been  £.;tended  with  signal 
benefit,  from  the  increase  and  certainty  of  the  crop.  It  is  per- 
formed by  subsoil  plows,  made  exclusively  for  this  purpose. 
The  objects  to  be  accomplished,  are  to  loosen  the  hard  earth 
below  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  plow,  and  permit  the  ready 
escape  of  the  water,  which  falls  upon  the  surface ;  the  circu- 
lation of  air  ;  and  a  more  extended  range  for  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  by  which  they  procure  additional  nourishment,  and 
secure  the  crop  agamst  drought,  by  peneirating  into  the  re- 
gions of  perpetual  moisture. 

An.  important  additional  advantage  results  from  their  con- 
tinued use,  m  the  deepening  of  the  soil  This  inevitably 
follows  from  opening  the  subsoil  to  the  meliorating  influence 
of  the  elements,  and  from  the  accumulation  of  vegetable' 
matter  in  the  roots.  These  penetrate  deeply  into  the  earth, 
and  are  left  to  decay  in  the  bed  where  they  originate.  An 
increased  value  in  the  soil  has  been  noticed  bv  observins:  ao-- 
nculturists,  to  the  extent,  in  many  instances,  of  over  five  per 
cent,  per  annum,  from  the  use  of  this  imnlement.  In  the 
rich,  compact,  deltal  lands  of  Louisiana  and  elsewhere,  the 
writer  has  seen  the  soil  made  loose,  elastic  and  friable, 
throughout  the  whole  field,  by  running  a  laxge  subsoil  plow 
to  its  utmost  depth,  at  a  distance  of  four  feet  between  the 
furrows.  The  entire  mass  of  soil,  seemed  to  be  thoroughly 
worked  {mellowed),  io  the  depth  which  the  plow  reached,  al- 
though run  at  these  comparatively  remote  distances. 

When  all  the  circumstances  are  favorable  to  the  use  of  the 
subsoil  plow,  an  increase  in  the  crop  of  20  or  30  and  some- 
times even  50  per  cent,  has  been  attributed  to  its  ooerations. 
Its  maximum  influence  on  stiff  soils  is  reached,  onlv  where 
uuderdraining  has  been  thoroughlj^  carried  out.  Its  benefits 
have  been  more  than  doubtful,  when  used  in  an  impervious 
clay  subsoil,  where  it  makes  further  room  for  storins;  up 
stagnant  water ;  and  i'  is  evident  they  can  only  aggravate  th* 
faults  of  such  subsoil'   as  are  naturally  too  loose  and  leachy 


MECHANICAL  V  VISION    OF    SOILS.  93 

PLOWS,  AND  OTHER   FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 

There  are  plows  for  almost  every  situation  and  soil,  in  ad- 
dition to  several  varieties  which  are  exclusively  used  for  the 
subsoil.  Some  are  for  heavy  lands  and  some  for  light ;  some 
for  stony  soils,  others  for  such  as  are  full  of  roots ;  while  seve- 
ral varieties  of  plows  are  expressly  made,  for  breaking  up  the 
hitherto  untilled  prairies  of  the  West.  Some  are  adapted  to 
deep  and  some  to  shallow  plowing ;  and  some  are  for  plowing 
around  a  hill  and  throwing  the  furrows  either  up  or  down,  or 
both  ways  alternately  ;  others  throw  the  soil  on  both  sides, 
and  are  used  for  furrowing  and  plowing  between  the  rows  of 
3orn  or  roots.  Every  farm  should  be  supplied  with  all  that 
are  entirely  suited  to  the  various  operations  required. 
There  is  frequently  great  economy  in  having  a  diversity  of  im- 
plements for  all  the  different  purposes  to  be  accomplished ;  and 
although  one  of  unusual  construction  may  seldom  be  called 
for,  yet  its  use  for  a  few  days  or  even  for  a  few  hours,  may 
sometimes  repay  its  full  cost. 

The  farmer  will  fiiad  in  the  best  agricultural  ware-houses, 
all  the  implements  necessary  to  his  operations,  with  such 
descriptions  as  will  enable  him  to  judge  of  their  merits. 
Great  attention  has  been  bestOAved  on  this  subject,  by  skil- 
ful and  intelligent  persons,  and  great  success  has  followed 
their  efforts.  The  United  States  may  safely  challenge  the 
world,  to  exhibit  better  specimens  of  farming  tools  than  they 
now  furnish,  and  their  course  is  still  one  of  improvement. 
There  are  numerous  competitors  for  public  favor,  in  every 
description  of  farm  implements  ;  and  an  intelligent  farmer 
cannot  fail  to  select  such  as  are  best  suited  to  his  own  situa- 
tion and  purposes. 

The  best  only  should  be  used.— There  has  been  a  "  penny 
wise  and  a  pound  foolish"  policy  adopted  by  many  farmers, 
in  their  neglect  or  refusal  to  supply  themselves  with  good 
tools  to  work  with.  They  thus  save  a  few  shillings  in  the 
first  outlay,  but  frequently  lose  ten  times  as  much  by  the 
use  of  indifferent  ones,  from  the  waste  of  labor  and  the  ineffi- 
ciency of  their  operations.  A  farmer  should  estimate  the 
value  of  his  own  and  his  laborer's  time,  as  well  as  that  of  his 
teams,  by  dollars  and  cents  ;  and  if  it  requires  thirty,  ten,  or 
even  one  "per  cent,  more,  to  accomplish  a  given  object  with 
one  instrument  than  with  another,  he  should,  before  buying 
one  of  inferior  quality,  carefully  compute  the  amount  his 
false  ecnumy  in  the  purchase  will  cost  him  before  he  has 
done  v(  .th  it.     Poor  men,  or  those  who  wish  to  thrive  can  ill 


yi  AMERICAN    ii  J-.ICULTI    RE 

afford  the  extravag^tice  of  buying  inferior  tools,  at  howevei 
low  a  price.  The  best  are  always  the  cheapest ;  not  those 
of  high  or  extravagant  finish,  or  in  any  respect  nnneccssari- 
ly  costly  ;  but  such  as  are  plain  and  substantial,  made  on  the 
best  principles  and  of  the  most  durable  materials.  To  no 
tools  do  these  remarks  apply  with  so  much  force,  as  to  plows 
The  improvements  in  these  have  been  greater  than  in  any 
other  instruments  ;  the  best  saving  fully  one  half  the  labor 
formerly  bestowed  in  accomplishing  the  same  work. 

HARROWING. 

The  object  of  the  harrow,  is  three  fold  ;  to  pulverize  the 
land,  to  cover  the  seed,  and  to  extirpate  weeds.  Unless 
the  land  be  verj"^  light  and  sandy,  the  operation  should  never 
be  performed  for  either  object,  except  when  sufficiently  dry 
to  allo"\v  of  its  crumbling  down  into  a  fine,  mellow  surffvce, 
under  the  action  of  ihe  harrow.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  harrows  in  use ;  the  triangular  and  the  sqttare,  both 
sometimes  hinged  and  sometimes  double ;  with  long  teeth 
and  Avith  short  ones,  some  thickly  set  together,  and  some 
wide  apart.  For  pitlverizing  firmly-sodded  or  still  clay 
lands,  a  heavy,  compact  harrow  is  required,  Avith  strong 
teeth,  sufficiently  spread  ;  and  for  lighter  lands,  or  for  cover- 
ing seed,  the  more  expanded  harroAv,  with  numerous  small 
and  thickly-set  teeth.  To  pulverize  well,  the  harroAV  should 
move  as  quickly  as  possible,  so  as  to  strike  the  lumps  forci- 
bly, and  knock  them  to  pieces  ;  and  for  this  purpose  an  active 
team  is  required.  When  the  land  sinks  much  under  the 
pressure  of  the  horses'  feet,  1  ght  animals,  as  mules  or  ponies, 
are  preferable. 

THE  ROLLER. 

This  is  an  important  implement  for  many  fields.  It  is  al- 
ways usefitl  for  pulveriziu!!  the  soil,  w^hich  it  does  by  breaking- 
down  such  clods  and  Ivimps  as  escape  the  harrow,  and  tliu.« 
renders  the  field  smooth  for  the  scythe  or  cradle  ;  and  it  is 
equally  so  on  meadows,  Avhich  have  become  uneven  from 
the  infiitence  of  frost,  ant-.\ills,  or  other  causes.  It  :'s  ser- 
viceable in  covering  seed,  by  pressing  the  earth  firmly 
around  it ;  thus  securing  moisture   enoitgh  for  germination. 

But  its  greatest  benefit  is  with  such  sandy  soils,  as  are 
not  sufficiently  compact  to  hold  the  roots  of  plants  firmly 
and  retain  a  suitable  moisture.  With  these  it  is  invaluable  ; 
and   the  proper  use  of  the  roller  has,    in  some    instances 


MECHANICAL.    DIVISION    OF    SOILS.  95 

doubled  the  product.  Its  effect  is  similar  to  that  produced 
by  the  frequent  treading  in  a  foot-path;  and  the  observhig 
farmer  will  not  have  failed  to  notice,  the  single  tliread  of 
thick,  green  sward,  which  marks  its  course  over  an  other- 
wise almost  barren  field  of  sand  or  loose  gravel.  The  thick- 
ly-woven,  emerald  net- work,  that  indicates  the  sheep-walks 
on  similar  soils,  is  principally  due  to  the  same  cause.  Those 
portions  of  the  pasture  which  have  been  thus  compressed, 
will  be  found  to  contain  a  thicker,  greener  herbage,  which 
>  earlier  in  spring  and  later  in  autumn,  and  much  more 
relished  by  the  animals  cropping  it,  and  apparently  more 
nutritive,  than  that  on  other  parts  of  the  field. 

ivoUers  are  variously  constructed.  The  simplest  form  is 
a  single  wooden  shaft,  with  gudgeons  at  each  end,  which  rest 
in  a  square  frame,  made  by  fastening  four  joists  together;  a 
tongue  for  drawing  it  being  placed  in  one  of  its  sides.  A 
box  may  be  attached  to  this  frame,  for  tlie  purpose  of  hold- 
ing stones  and  weeds  picked  up  in  the  field,  and  for  weight- 
ing the  roller  according  to  the  work  required.  The  best 
rollers,  however,  are  of  cast  iron,  made  in  sections  of  about 
a  foot  in  length.  As  many  of  these  may  be  placed  on  a 
single  axle  as  are  required.  This  division  into  short  sections, 
facilitates  turning  on  the  axle,  either  back  or  forward,  and 
prevents  the  unsightly  and  objectionable  furrowing  of  the 
earth,  Avhich  occurs  in  turning  with  the  long,  solid  roller. 
Some  are  made  of  stone,  but  these  are  very  liable  to  break, 
and  are  equally  objectionable  in  turning,  as  those  made 
of  wood. 

The  larger  the  roller,  the  greater  is  the  surface  brought 
into  contact  with  the  ground,  and  consequently  the  more 
level  it  leaves  it.  To  accomplish  this  object  without  too 
much  increase  of  weight,  rollers  are  frequently  constructed 
with  heads  at  the  ends,  and  closely  covered  like  a  drum.  For 
dividing  compact,  clay  lumps,  or  scarifying  meadows,  they 
are  sometimes  made  with  large  numbers  of  short,  stout, 
ingular  teeth,  projecting  from  the  outer  or  rolling  surface, 
which  penetrate  and  ciash  the  clods,  and  tear  up  and  loosen 
♦^he  old  turf  and  moss  of  meadows. 

THE  CULTIVATOR 

Has  a  light  frame,  in  the  form  of  a  triangular  or  wedge- 
harrow,  with  handles  behind,  like  those  of  a  plow,  and  with 
several  small  iron  teeth  in  the  frame,  somewhat  resembling 
a  doubie  share  plow.     The  teeth  are  usually  of  cast  iron,  and 


96  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

when  properly  made  2i\\^  chill-hardened,  as  is  the  case  with 
those  portions  of  the  plow  most  liable  to  \vear,  they  are  un- 
doubtedly the  most  economical  and  best.  They  are  rarely 
made  of  wrought  iron,  but  more  frequently  of  steel. 

They  are  of  various  sizes,  slightly  differing  in  construc- 
tion, and  are  of  great  utility  in  stirring  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  destroying  weeds.  By  an  expanding  attachment, 
they  are  capable  of  being  adapted  to  any  width  of  row. 

THE  CORNPLANTER  AND  DRILL  BARROW 

Are  useful  for  dibbling  iji  seeds,  and  when  the  surface  ia 
mellow,  they  will  open  the  furrows  for  the  reception  of  the 
seed,  which  it  drops,  covers,  and  then  rolls  the  earth  firmly 
over  it.  The  small  drills  are  trmidled  along  like  a  wheel- 
barrow, by  hand ;  and  the  larger,  for  field  sowing,  having 
several  fixtures  for  drilling,  are  drawn  by  a  horse.  These 
are  suited  to  the  smaller  seeds.  Cornplantersare  made  to  plant 
corn,  beans  and  peas,  which  they  do  at  the  rate  of  ten  acres 
per  day,  and  Avith  entire  uniformity  as  to  quantity  of  seed 
in  a  hill,  depth  of  covering  and  distance. 

STTRFACE  OR  SHOVEL  PLOWS. 

These  are  a  cheap  and  light  instrument,  much  used  in 
England,  and  to  some  extent  in  this  country,  for  paring  the 
stubble  and  grass  roots  on  the  surfaces  of  old  meadows. 
These  are  raked  together  into  heaps,  and  "with  whatever 
addition  there  may  be  of  earth  or  clay,  are  burnt,  and  the 
ashes  and  roasted  earth  scattered  over  the  soil.  There  is 
an  apparent  objection  to  this  practice,  from  the  expulsion  of 
the  carbon  and  nitrogen  stored  up  in  the  plants ;  and  from  the 
\vaste  of  the  coarse  material  of  the  decaying  vegetables, 
which  is  so  useful  in  effecting  the  proper  mechanical  divi 
sions  of  clay  soils.  But  by  a  reference  to  what  has  been 
said,  on  the  efficiency  of  burnt  clay  or  broken  bricks,  their 
great  utility  as  fertilizers  \v\\\  be  seen.  This  and  the  ash 
of  the  plants  remain ;  and  both  are  useful  in  quickening  the 
action  of  soils,  and  accelerating  those  changes,  so  beneficial 
to  vegetation  ;  and  even  the  re-absorption  of  the  atmosphe- 
ric gases,  it  is  probable,  will  more  *han  compensate  for  those 
expelled  in  burning.  The  effect  is  further  salutary,  in  de- 
stroying grubs,  insects  and  their  larvae,  and  the  seeds  oi 
aoxious  weeds. 


THK   GRA3SKS     MEADOWS.    ETC.  97 


CHAPTER    VI. 


THE  GRASSES,  CLOVERS,  MEADOW'S  AND  PASTURES 

The  order  designated  by  naturalists  as  GramincB,  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  universally  diffused  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  It  is  also  the  most  important  to  man,  and  to  all 
the  different  tribes  of  graminiverous  animals.  It  includes 
not  only  what  are  usually  cultivated  as  grasses,  but  also 
rice,  millet,  Avheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize,  sugar-cane, 
broom-corn,  the  wild  cane  and  the  bamboos,  the  last  sometimes 
reaching  60  or  80  feet  in  height.  They  are  invariably  charac- 
terized as  having  a  cylindrical  stem  ;  hollow,  or  sometimes  as 
in  the  sugar-cane  and  bamboos,  filled  with  a  pith-like  sub- 
stance ;  Avith  solid  joints  and  alternate  leaves,  originating  at 
each  joint,  and  surrounding  the  stem  at  their  base  and  form- 
ing a  sheath  upwards,  of  greater  or  loss  extent  ;  and  the 
flowers  and  seed  are  protected  with  a  firm,  straw-like  cover- 
ing, which  is  the  chaflf  in  the  grains  and  grass  seeds,  and  the 
husk  in  Indian  corn.  They  yield  large  proportions  of  sugar, 
starch  and  fatty  matter,  besides  those  peculiarly  animal  pro- 
ducts, albumen  and  fibrin,  not  only  in  the  seeds,  but  also, 
and  especially  before  the  latter  are  fully  matured,  in  the 
stems,  joints  and  leaves.  These  qualities  give  to  them  the 
great  value  which  they  possess  in  agriculture. 

Of  the  grasses  cultivated  for  the  use  of  animals  in  England, 
there  are  said  to  be  no  less  than  200  varieties  ;  while  in  the 
occupied  portion  of  this  country,  embracing  an  indefinitely 
greater  variety  of  latitude,  climate  and  situation,  we  hardly 
cultivate  twenty.  The  number  and  excellence  of  our 
natural  grasses,  are  probably  unsurpassed  in  any  quarter  of 
the  globe,  for  a  similar  extent  of  country ;  but  this  is  a  de- 
partment of  our  natural  history,  hitherto  but  partially  ex- 
plored, and  we  are  left  mostly  to  conjecture,  as  to  their  num 
bers  and  comparative  quality.  Their  superior  -ichness  and 
enduringness  may  be  inferred,  from  the  health  and  thrift  o 
the  butfalo,  deer  and  ofher  wild  herbivora^  ;  as  well  as  from 
t>--  g-owth  and  fine  conditiop  of  our  lomestic  animals 
5 


98 


AMERlCAy    AGRICULTL'RS. 


throughout  the  year,  when  ]>ern.itled  to  raiige  over  tue 
woods,  and  through  the  natural  prairies  and  bottom  lands, 
where  these  grasses  abound.  The  Avriter  has  seen  large 
droves  of  the  French  and  InJian  ponies  come  into  the  set- 
tlements about  Green  Say  and  tiie  Fox  River  in  Wisconsin, 
in  the  spring,  in  good  working  condition,  after  winteriijg, 
entirely  on  the  natural  grasses  and  browse  north  of  lat.  44°. 
Timothy,  Cat's  Tail  dr  Herd's  Grass  (Phleunipratense.) 
-For  cultivation  in  the  nortl  em  portion  ol 
I  the  United  States,  I  am  inclir  ^d  to  place  the 
Timothy  first  in  the  list  of  tte  irrasses.  It 
is  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  flourishes  in 
all  soils  except  such  as  are  wet,  too  light, 
dry,  or  sandy ;  and  it  is  found  in  perfection 
on  the  rich  clays  and  clay  loams,  \vhich  lie 
between  38*^  and  4-i°  north  latitude.  It  is  a 
perennial,  easy  of  cultivation,  hardy  and  of 
luxuriant  growth,  and  on  its  favorite  soil, 
yields  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  tons  of  hay 
per  acre,  at  one  cutting. 

Sinclair  estimates  its  value  for  hay  ^vhen 
in  seed,  to  be  double  that  cut  in  flower. 
From  its  increased  value  Avhen  ripe,  it  is  cut 
late  ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  exhaustion  from  maturing  its 
seed,  it  produces  but  little  aftermath  or  rowen.  For  milch 
cows  or  young  stock,  it  should  be  cut  when  going  into 
fioAver,  and  before  the  seeds  have  been  developed,  as  it  is  then 
more  succulent.  It  vegetates  early  in  the  spring,  and  when 
pastured,  yields  abundantly  throughout  the  season.  Both 
the  grass  and  hay  are  hiahly  relished  by  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses ;  and  its  nutritive  quality,  in  the  opinion  of  practical 
men,  stands  decidedly  before  any  other.  It  is  also  a  valua- 
ble crop  for  seed  an  acre  of  prime  grass  yielding  from  15 
to  25  bushels  of  iJean  seed,  which  is  worth  in  the  market 
from  $1  50  to  $4  50  per  bushel ;  and  the  stalks  and  the 
chaff  that  remain,  make  a  useful  fodder  for  most  kinds  ol 
stock. 

It  may  be  sown  upon  ^vheat  or  rye,  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber :r  in  the  spring.  When  sown  either  alone,  or  with  other 
grasses,  early  in  the  season,  and  on  a  rich  soil,  it  Avill  pro- 
duce a  good  crop  the  same  j'-ear.  From  its  late  ripening,  it 
is  not  advantageously  groAvn  Avit'i  clover,  unless  upon  heavy 
clays,  which  holcl  back  the  clove:.  I  have  tried  it  with  the 
northern  or  mam-.:oth  clover,  or  :lay,  and  found  the  latter 


Fig.  4. 


T7IE   g; 


::s,   MEADOW ^,   etc 


thougn  iiostly  m  full  blossom,  still  pushing  out  new  .ranches 
and  buds,  when  the  former  was  fit  to  cut.'^  The  quantity  o 
seed  required  per  acre,  depends  on  the  soil  and  its  condition 
iwelve  quarts  on  a  fine  mellow  tilth,  are  sufficient,  and 
equal  to  twice  this  quantity  on  a  stiff  clay.  Heavier  seed- 
ing than  this  may  be  practised  with  advantage,  and  especial- 
ly, where  it  is  desirable  to  cover  the  surface  at  once  with  a 
thick  sward. 


Fig.  5.  Fig.  6  Fig.  7. 

_  Meadow  Fox  Tail  {Alopecurus  pratensis  Fig.  5)  This 
IS  a  favorite  grass  in  England,  both  for  meadows  and 
pasture.  It  grows  early  and  abundantly,  and  gives  a  lar^e 
quantity  of  aftermath.  It  is  best  suited  to  a  moi.st  soil,  bog 
clay  or  loam.     It  is  indigenous  to  the  middle  States. 

feMooTH  Stalk  Meadow,  Green,  Spear  or  June  Grass. 
he  erroneously  called  Blue  Grass  of  Kentucky  (Poaprd 
temis  Fig.  6),  is  highly  e.<teemed  for  hay  and  pasture  It 
IS  indigenous  and  abounds  through  the  country,  but  does  not 
appear  to  reach  its  highest  perfection  north  of  the  valley  of 
the  Ohio.  It  IS  seen  in  its  glory  in  Kentucky  and  Tennes- 
see. 1  he  seed  ripens  in  June  and  is  self-sown  upon  the 
ground,  where  the  succeeding  rains  give  it  vitality ;  and  it 
pushes  out  Its  long,  rich  slender  leaves,  two  feet  in  lieio-ht 
which  in  autumn,  fail  over  in  thick  windrows,  mattino-^he 
whole  surface  with  luscious  herbage.  Upon  these  fields,  which 
nave  been  carefully  protected  till  the  other  fora-e  is  exhaust- 
ed, the  cattle  are  turned  and  fatten  through  the  whiter  It 
maintains  its  freshness  and  nutritive  properties  in  spite  o. 
irost  and  Jie  cattle  easily  reach  it  through  the  light  snowa 
which  fall  m   that  climate.     A  warm,  dry,  calcareoi^  soil, 


too 


4MERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


seoms  to  be  '-ts  natural  element,  and  it  flourishes  only  in  a 
rich  upland. 

The  Pvoughish  Meadow  Grass  (P.  trivialis  Fig.  7), 
oas  the  appearance  of  the  poa  pratensis,  but  its  stalk  feela 
rough  to  the  touch,  while  the  other  is  smooth.  It  has  the 
further  difference,  of  pre '"erring  moist  or  wet  loams  or  clay. 
It  yields  ■well  and  affords  gKjod  hay  and  pasture. 

Flat-Stalked  Meadow  or  Blue  Grass  (P.  compressa)^ 
is  an  early  dwarfish  grass,  which  abounds  in  the  middle  and 
northern  States.  It  is  tenacious  of  its  foothold  wherever  it 
ir.tr udes.  It  possesses  little  merit  as  hay,  but  is  valuable  for 
pasture,  affording  as  it  does,  a  close  covering  to  the  ground, 
and  yielding  much  in  a  small  compass. 


Fig.  10. 


The  Annual  Meadow  Grass  (P.  annua.  Fig.  8). — This 
^rass  flourishes  in  most  soils,  and  in  nearly  alt  situations. 
It  affords  an  early  and  nutritive  herbage,  and  is  relished  by 
ail  animals.  It  is  perpetually  flowering,  and  affords  an 
abundance  of  rich  seeds.  It  is  hardy  and  self-propagatin"-, 
and  seldom  requires  to  be  sown,  but  springs  up  wherever 
the  ground  is  uncukivated. 

Narrow-Leaved  Meadow  (P.  angustifolia,  Fig.  9). — 
This  is  an  early  pasture  grass,  throwing  out  a  profusion  of 
slender  leaves.  It  flowers  late,  and  before  it  ha,?  reached  this 
point  of  its  maturity,  it  is  liable  to  rust,  which  diminishes  its 
value  for  hay.  It  is  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  its  diminu- 
tive size,  much  bettat'  adapted  to  pasture. 

Red  Top.  Herds'  Grass,  Foul  Meadow,  or  Fine  Bent 
{Agrostis  vulgaris,   Fig.  10),  is  a  hardy,    luxuriant    grass, 


THE    GRASSES,    MSADOWS,    ETC. 


101 


loviiif  a  very  moist  soil,  and  somewhat  indiffereix  is  to  its 
texture.  The  scale  of  its  nutritive  properties  is  pnt  down  in 
the  Woburn  experiments,  at  a  remarkably  low  rate,  being 
iess  than  one  fourteenth  of  the  value  per  acre  of  Timothy  in 
the  seed.  We  .hink  tk  3re  must  be  an  error  in  this  esti- 
mate, as  it  grows  luxuriantly  under  favorable  circumstances, 
and  is  relished  by  cattle.  It  is  seldom  cultivated  by  observ- 
ing farmers,  where  the  better  grasse?  will  grow. 

Upright  Bent  Grass,  Herds'  Grass  or  Fotjl  Meadow 
(y1.  stricta)  is  similar  to  the  foregoing,  and  by  some  is  deem- 
ed only  a  variety. 

Tall  Oat  Grass  (^Avena  elatior)  is  an  early  luxuriant 
grass,  growing  to  the  height,  sometimes,  of  five  feet.  It 
makes  good  hay,  but  is  better  suited  to  pasture.  It  flour- 
ishes in  a  loam  or  clay  soil. 


Fio.  12. 


Fio.  li. 


Fio.  13. 


The  Tall  Fescue  [Festuca  elatior,  Fig.  11)  would 
appear  by  the  Woburn  experiments,  to  yield  more  nutritive 
matter  per  acre,  when  cut  in  flower,  than  any  other  grass  cut 
either  in  flower  or  seed.  This  is  a  native  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  best  suited  to  a  rich  loam.  It  is  not  extensively 
cultivated  in  this  country. 

Meadow  Fescue  (F.  pratensis,  Fig.  12)  hkes  a  rich 
bogo;y  soil,  bears  well  and  produces  an  early  grass,  much 
relished  by  cattle,  either  green,  or  cured  as  hay. 

Spiked  Fescue  (F.  loleacea  Fig.  13)  is  adapted  to  a 
rich  loam,  and  produces  the  best  of  hay  and  pasture. 

ThE  Purple  Fescue  {F.  rubra).  Sheep's  Fescue  [F 
ovina      Fig.  14)     Ti:e    Hard    Fescue    {F.    durinscula 


102 


AHEKICAS    AGRICULTURE. 


Fig.  15),  anci  The  Floating  Fescue  (P. ^2«Ya;w,  Fig.  16) 
are  all  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  good  pasture  grasses. 
The  two  last  are  g-ood  hay  grasses,  though  the  former  is  rathei 
diminutive. 


Fig.  14. 


Fio.  IC. 


The  floating  fescue  requires  to  grow  in  a  very  wet  and 
strong  clay  soil,  "w^hen  it  will  be  found  to  yield  a  large  burthen 
of  nutritive  forage.  The  seeds  are  small  but  abundant, 
sweet  and  fattening.  All  fowls  are  fond  of  the  seed,  and  all 
animals  of  the  seed  and  herbage. 

Orchard  or  Cock's  Foot  Grass  [Dactylis  glonierata, 
Fig.  17)  is  indigenous,  and  for  good  ara- 
ble soils,  and  especially  for  such  as  are 
shaded,  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
grasses  grown.  It  shoiild  be  cut  for  hay 
before  it  is  ripe,  as  in  seeding  it  becomes 
coarse  and  hard,  and  is  less  acceptable  to 
cattle.  It  is  ready  for  the  scythe  with  the 
clover,  and  -after  cutting,  it  immediately 
sprinss  up  and  furnishes  three  or  four  crops 
of  hay,  or  constant  pasturage  throughout 
the  season.  It  should  be  fed  closeh',  to  se- 
cure a  tender,  succulent  herbage.  The 
seed  is  remarkably  hght,  weighing  12  or 
Fio.  17.  1 5  Ibs.  per  bushel.  Twenty  to  thirty  pounds 

are  usually  sown  upon  one  acre  ;    yet   ten  pounds  on  finely- 
prepared  soils  have  been  known  to  produce  a  good  sod,  ove' 
the  entire  ground.     It  flourishes  from  Maine  to  Georgia. 
American  or  Swamp  Cock's  Foot  {D.  cyTWSunndes)  is 


THE   GEASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC. 


103 


an  indigenous  swamp  grass,  yielding  a  large  amount  of  grass 
or  haj'^  of  inferior  quality. 

Biennial  Rye  Grass,  or  frequently  called,  Ray  Grass 
{Lolium  perenneox  bienne,  Fig.  18)  and  Ital- 
ian Rye  Grass  are  highly  esteemed  grasses  in 
Europe.  They  have  been  more  or  less  cultiva- 
ted in  this  country  for  many  years.  They  were 
not  successful  on  their  first  introduction  here, 
owing  to  our  severe  frosts.  Recent  experi- 
ments, however,  have  shown  them  to  be  suffi- 
ciently hardy  for  the  middle  States  ;  and  they 
are  now  extensively  cultivated  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  New  York,  where  they  are  highly  es- 
teemed both  for  hay  and  pasturage.  On  good 
soils,  they  yield  large  returns  of  valuable  for- 
age. It  is  better  to  sow  early  in  the  spring, 
either  by  itself  or  with  barley.  With  oats  or 
wheat,  it  does  not  succeed  so  well.  When  put  in  with  Tim- 
othy and  orchard  grass,  the  latter  has  usurped  the  place  ot 
both  the  others  in  a  few  years.  Heavy  clay  lands  are  liable 
to  throw  out  the  roots  by  frost,  and  thus  winter-kill. 

FioRiN     Grass     {Agrostis    stolonifera.    Fig.     19)    has 
been  much  lauded  in  England    of    late,    but  it    has  made 
little  progress  in  the  estimation  of 
'/>  American   farmers,   and    probably 
with  sufficient  reason.     It  is  a  di- 
minutive grass,  affording  conside- 
rable   nutriment    in    a  condensed 
form,  and  is  adapted  to   a    winter 
pasture.     It  growls  on  a  moist  clay 
or  boggy  soil.     It  is  probably  on 
/  such,  and  in  moist  climdies   only, 
/|  that  it  attains  its  full  size,  charac- 
^   ter  and  value.      Many  results  have 
^J.  ,    been  attained  with  it   in  England 
"y^     and  Ireland,  wliich  would  seem  to 
commend  it,  as  a   valuable  forage 
Fia.  19.  plant,  in   its  appropriate    soil   and 

elimate.  Several  of  the  florin  family  abound  in  this  coun- 
try, among  which  is  the  squitch,  couch,  or  quick  grass, 
which  are  considered  as  jests  m  the  cultivated  fields. 


i04 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


The  Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass  [Anthoxanthum 
odoratum,  Fig.  20)  is  an  early  and  valuable 
grass,  which  exhales  that  delightful  per- 
fume so  characteristic  of  much  of  the  east- 
ern meadow  hay.  It  is  also  a  late  as  well 
as  an  early  grass,  and  luxuriates  in  a  dry 
sandy  loam.  It  affords  two,  and  some- 
times three  crops  in  a  season. 


Poa  Alpina  (Fig.  21),  Aira  caspitosa 
(Fig.  22),  Briza  media  (Fig.  23),  and  the 
Agrostis  humilis,  and  Agrostis  vulgaris, 
as  well  as  the  Hard  and  Sheep's  Fescue, 
before  noticed,  are  all  sweet,  pasture 
grasses,  and  excellent  for  lawns.  These, 
Fig.  20.  and  a  large  variety  of  other  dwarf  grasses, 

abound  on  our  uncultivated  uplands,  mountains  and  wood- 
lands, creeping  in  through  the  neglect,  rather  than  the  care 


Fig.  21.  Fio.  22.  Fig.  23. 

of  the  husbandman.  They  yield  a  nutritive  herbage  for  the 
herds  and  flocks  ;  and  an  almost  perennial  verdure  to  the 
landscape,  equally  grateful  to  the  rustic  eye,  or  a  cultivated 
taste. 

Ribbon  Grass  (Phalaris  afnericana)  is  the  beautiful  stri- 
ped grass,  occasionally  used  for  garden  borders.  It  has  been 
highly  recommended  for  swamps,  to  which,  if  transplanted, 
it  is  alleged  that  it  will  supersede  all  other  grasses,  and  af 
ford  a  fine  quality  of  hay,  of  an  appearance  quite  dfferent 
from  the  upland  growth.  The  writer  tried  several  exper: 
ments,  both  with  the  seed  and  roots,  on  a  clay  marsh,  but  witli 


THE   GRASSES,    MEAIOWS,   ETC,  105 

out  success.  Its  proper  pabulum  is  probably  a  rich  carbona- 
ceous soil,  such  as  is  found  in  an  alluvial  s^vamp  or  peat 
bed. 

Gama  Grass  (  Tripsaciim  dactyloides)  is  found  growing 
spontaneously  on  a  naked  sand  beach,  in  Stratford,  Ct.,  and 
in  other  places  on  our  eastern  coasts.  It  has  occasionally 
been  much  lauded  at  the  North,  M'here  it  is  a  coarse,  rough 
grass  ;  and  it  seems  generally,  to  be  little  prized  at  the  South. 
But  we  have  recently,  the  opinion  of  some  iirtelligent  men 
in  that  section,  that  it  is  much  relished  by  stock  ;  as  they 
frequently  eat  it  so  close  to  the  ground,  as  soon  to  extirpate 
it.  We  .«ihould  conclude,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  valuable  grass 
for  some  sections  of  the  United  States,  v.?' pre  the  soil  and 
locality  are  suited  to  it. 

The  Egyptian,  Syrian  or  Guinka  Grass  {Sorghum 
halpense,  Fig.  24),  known  by  various 
other  names,  is  a  native  of  our 
southern  States,  in  many  of  its  va- 
rieties, although  it  has  been  import- 
ed from  abroad.  I  have  seen  it 
growing  in  profusion  on  Long 
Island,  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  in 
southern  Mississippi.  It  grows 
like  a  very  slender,  miniature  Corli- 
ss stalk,  from  four  to  six  feet  high, 
with  a  strong  stem,  a  large  grassy 
^""■-  24.  leaf,  and  bears  a  stately  seed-stalk, 

tufted  with  flowrets,  which,  however,  so  far  as  they  have 
come  within  my  knowledge,  do  not  bear  a  fully-ripened  seed 
in  this  country.  That  imported  from  the  Mediterranean, 
grows  with  great  vigor.  Its  roots  are  tuberous,  large  and 
prolific  ;  and  equally  Avith  the  rich,  succulent  leaves  and 
stalks,  when  the  latter  are  young,  they  are  at  all  times 
greedily  devoured  by  stock.  Dr.  Bachman,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, considers  it  a  stock-sustaining  plant,  far  superior  to  any 
other  grown  at  the  South.  It  is  difficult  to  remove  when 
once  embedded  in  the  soil,  and  the  cotton  planters  look  upon 
its  introduction  into  their  cultivated  fields,  with  unmingled 
apprehension. 

Bermuda  Grass  (Cynodmi  dactylon,  Lin. — Paspaluni 
dactylon,  Deccan.,  Fig.  17). — This  is  considered  by  Mr. 
Spalding,  an  experienced  planter  in  Georgia,  who  examined 
them  both  critically,  from  specimens  which  he  raised  to- 
gether, as  che  Doub  grass  of  India,  so  much  commended 
5* 


lOG  AMERICAN    AGRICTJI  TURE. 

by  Sir  William  Jones,  and  so  highly  prized  by  the  Brah- 
mins. It  is  by  the  agriculturists  of  the  South,  deemed  an 
invaluable  grass,  yielding  four  or  five  tons  per  acre  on  good 
meadow.     Mr.  Atileck,  of  Mississippi,  states  the  yield  of  three 


Fig  25. 

cuttings,  at  five  to  six  tons  i)er  acre  on  common  meadow, 
that  it  loses  only  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying,  and  is 
consequently  the  hardest  grass  to  cut.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
nutritive  grasses  known,  and  is  of  great  value  to  the  river 
planter.     It  loves  a  warm  and  moist,  but  not  wet  soil. 

Crab  Grass  is  considered  (unjustly  as  I  think)  a  pest  by 
the  cotton-planters,  for  equally,  perhaps,  with  the  Bermuda, 
it  is  a  rich  and  nutritious  grass.  It  comes  up  after  the  crops 
are  laid  by  (received  their  last  plowing  and  hoeing),  and 
grows  rapidly  as  the  cotton  or  corn  matures  and  dries ;  and 
by  the  time  they  are  ready  to  remove  from  the  field,  has 
frequently  attained  so  large  a  growth,  as  to  afford  a  crop  of 
hay.  Even  considered  as  a  fertilizer  alone,  it  is  a  valuable 
assistant  to  the  planter.  When  the  corn  or  cotton  is  young, 
the  ground  requires  working  to  an  extent  sufficient  to 
keep  down  this  grass,  solely  Avith  a  reference  to  preserving 
its  porosity — its  dew-condensing,  dew-absorbing  proper- 
ties. When  the  crop  is  sufficiently  matured  to  need  no  fur- 
ther care,  the  grass  shoots  forward  rapidly,  and  absorbs 
largely  from  the  floating  elements  of  the  air. 

Winter  Grass  is  known  on  the  low,  moist  fertile  soils  of 
Mississippi  and  adjoining  States.  It  springs  up  in  the  au- 
tumn, grows  all  Avinter,  and  seeds  in  the  spring.  It  fattens 
all  animals  that  feed  upon  it. 

The  Muskeet  Grass,  found  growing  on  the  plains  of  Mex- 
ico and  Texas,  is  considered  one  of  /he  best  of  the  indigenous 
grasses.  I  \\:  'e  seen  it  growing  on  the  plantations  of  Louisi- 
ana, where  it  has  been  successfully  transplanted. 

Grama  [La  Grama,  or  the  grass  of  grasses)  is  held  in 
the  highest  estimation  b}''  the  Mexicans.  It  attains  a  me- 
dium height,  and  is  deemed  the  most  nutritious  of  the  natural 
grasses  in  oar  southwestern,  frontier  prairies,  in  California, 
and  parts  of  Mexico.  It  grows  on  dry,  hard,  gravelly  soils, 
on  side  hills,  the  SAye^ls  of  the  prairies,  and  the  gentle  eleva- 


THE   GRvSSES,    ITEADO'iVS,    ETC  107 

tions  in  the  valleys.  The  principal  value  is  found  in  the 
numerous  seeds,  whi  ih  are  retained  in  the  pods  with  great 
tenacity,  long  after  the>  are  ripe,  serving  as  a  luxurious 
food  for  all  the  graniverous  beasts  and  fowls  of  the  regions 
where  it  is  grown. 

The  Buffalo  G/riss  is  found  intermixed  with  the  Grama 
and  seldom  grows  more  than  a  few  inches  in  height.  It 
forms  a  thick,  sOft  herbage,  on  which  the  traveller  walks 
with  ease,  and  reposes  when  weary,  Avith  delight.  It  yields 
a  rich  sustenance  to  countless  herds  of  wild  horses  and  cat- 
tle, butfaloes,   leer  and  antelopes. 

Tornillo  or  Screio  Grass. — This  grows  in  great  profu- 
sion in  the  region  of  the  two  last  grasses ;  but  is  most  con- 
spicuous on  the  table  lands,  and  between  the  rivers  and 
creeks,  the  tall  grass  of  the  lower  levels,  giving  place  to  it  as 
the  surface  ascends.  It  is  taller  than  the  buffalo,  with 
broader  leaves.  It  bears  a  seed-stock  eight  or  ten  inches 
high,  surmounted  by  a  spiral-shaped  pod,  an  inch  long  and 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  contains  ten  or 
twelve  roundish,  flattened  seeds.  The  herbage  is  not  re- 
lished by  animals,  but  the  ripened  seeds  yield  a  food  of  great 
richness,  on  which  umumerable  herds  of  wild  cattle  fatten 
for  slaughter.  Horses,  mules  and  most  other  animals  and 
fowls  subsist  upon  it. — (Z);-.  Lyman.) 

The  Prairie  Grasses  abound  in  the  western  prairies,  and 
are  of  great  variety,  according  to  the  latitude  and  circum- 
stances under  which  they  are  found.  They  afford  large  sup- 
plies of  nutritive  food  both  as  pasturage  and  hay.  They 
possess  different  merits  for  stock,  but  as  a  general  rule,  they 
are  coarse  when  they  have  reached  maturity,  and  are  easily 
injured  by  the  early  frosts  of  autumn.  Some  of  the  le- 
guminosae  or  wild  pea  vines,  which  are  frequently  found 
among  them,  yield  the  richest  herbage.  We  are  not  aware 
that  any  of  these  grasses  have  been  cultivated  with  success. 

The  Pony  Grass  (Fig  26)  may  be  mentioned,  as  one  of  the 


best    of   the    winter    grasses    in  our   western  States.     It 
grows  in  close,  thick,  elevated  tufts,  and  continues  green  all 
winter.  It  is  easily  detected  under  the  snow  by  ammals,  from 
the  little  hommocs  Avhich  everywhere  indent  its  surface, 
Tkc  Wild  Rtct  which  lines  <he  still,  s'\allow  waters  of 


108  AMERICAN    AORICUl-TirRE. 

the  streams  and  small  inland  lakes  of  many  of  the  western 
States,  affords  a  palatable  forage  when  2,Teen,  or  if  early  cut 
and  dried  ;  and  the  grain,  which  is  prwiuced  in  great  profu- 
sion, is  an  exhaustless  store  to  the  Indians,  Avho  push  into 
the  thickest  of  it,  and  bending  over  the  ripe  heads,  W'thtwo 
or  three  strokes  of  the  paddle  on  the  dry  stalks,  rattle  the  grain 
into  their  light  canoes.  The  wild  ducks,  geese  and  swazs, 
which  yet  frequent  those  waters,  fatten  on  this  grain  t'^.rough- 
out  the  fall  and  winter. 

TussAC  Grass  {T)actijlis  cesjjitosa)  is  a  laxuriant,  salt- 
marsh  grass,  groAving  in  large  tufts,  and  is  found  in  perfec- 
tion on  its  native  soil,  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  between  51° 
and  52°  South,  and  about  8"^  east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
Capt.  Ross  describes  it,  as  '*  the  gold  and  glory  of  those 
islands.  Every  animal  feeds  upon  it  with  avidity,  and  ftit- 
tens  in  a  short  time.  The  blades  are  about  six  feet  long,  and 
from  200  to  300  shoots  spring  from  a  single  plant.  About 
four  inches  of  the  root  eats  like  the  mountain  cabbage.  It 
loves  a  rank,  wet  peat  bog,  with  the  sea  spray  over  it." 
Governor  Hood  of  those  islands  sa^'-s,  "  to  cultivate  the  tus- 
sac,  I  would  reconmiend  that  the  seed  be  sown  in  patches, 
just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  at  distances  of 
about  two  feet  apart,  and  afterwards  weeded  out,  as  it  grows 
very  luxuriantly,  and  to  the  height  of  six  or  seven  feet.  It 
should  not  b?  izrazed.  but  reaped  or  cut  in  bimdles.  If  cut, 
it  quickly  shoots  up,  l)Ut  is  injured  by  grazing,  particularly 
by  pi  iS,  who  tear  it  up  to  get  at  the  sweet  nutty  root." 

Arundo  Grass  (^Arundo  alopecurus). — Mr.  Hooker 
from  the  same  islands  says :  "another  grass,  however,  far 
more  abundant  and  universally  distributed  ov'er  the  whole 
country,  scarcely  yields  in  its  nutritious  qualities  to  the  tus- 
sac  ;  I  mean  the  Arundo  alopecurus,  which  covers  every 
peat  bog  with  a  dense  and  rich  clothing  of  green  in  sum- 
mer, and  a  pale,  A^ellow,  good  hay  in  the  winter  season. 
This  hay,  though  formed  by  nature  without  being  mown  and 
dried,  keeps  those  cattle  which  have  not  access  to  the  former 
grass,  in  excellent  condition.  No  bog,  however  rank,  seems 
too  bad  for  this  plant  to  luxuriate  in ;  and  as  we  remarked 
during  our  survey  of  Port  William,  although  the  soil  on  the 
quartz  districts  was  very  unprolific  in  many  good  grasses, 
which  flourish  on  the  clay  slate,  and  generally  speaking,  of 
the  worst  description,  still  the  Arundo  did  not  appear  to  feel 
the  change ;  nor  did  the  cattle  fail  to  eat  down  large  tracts 
of  this  pasturage." 

J  have  purposely  devoted  several  pages  to  the  description 


THE   GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  ,09 

of  such  new  grasses  as  are  indigenous  to  this  continent,  ani'' 
which,  by  their  superior  vakie  in  their  native  locahties, 
would  seem  to  commend  themselves  to  a  thorough  trial  in 
similar  situations  elsewhere.  There  are  doul:less,  others  ot 
great  merit,  which  experiment  hereafter,  will  demonstrate 
to  be  of  singular  benefit  to  the  American  farmer.  Most  o( 
these,  yet  remain  to  be  classified  by  the  botanists  ;  and  what 
is  of  much  more  utility,  to  be  thoroughly  tested  by  the  cru- 
cibles of  intelligent  chemists  and  the  experiments  of  en- 
lightened agriculturists,  to  determine  their  absolute  and  rela- 
tive value  for  economical  purposes.  The  subject  of  grasses 
has  been  but  slightly  investigated  in  this  country,  in 
comparison  with  its  immense  importance ;  and  for  this 
reason,  with  few  exceptions,  Ave  are  at  a  loss  for  the 
true  comparative  value,  of  the  foreign  and  indigenous 
grasses,  to  American  husbandry. 

As  an  instance  of  the  want  of  a  well-established  character 
to  some  of  our  most  generally-cultivated  grasses,  we  quote 
the  opinions  of  Dr.  Muhlenburgh,  of  Pa.,  who  has  written 
ably  on  the  subject ;  and  the  late  John  Taylor,  a  distin- 
guished agriculturist  of  Virginia,  both  of  whom  place  the 
tall  oat  grass  [Avena  elatior)  at  the  head  of  the  grasses  ; 
yet  from  the  investigations  made  at  Woburn,  it  appears 
among  the  poorest  in  the  amount  of  nutritive  matter  yielded 
per  acre.  Dr.  Darlington,  also  of  Pennsylvania,  does  not 
mention  it,  but  gives  the  following,  as  comprehending  "  those 
species  which  are  considered  of  chief  value  in  our  meadows 
and  pastures,  naming  them  in  what  T  consider  the  order  of 
their  excellence  :  1.  MeadoAV  or  green  grass  (Pofl  pratensis) 
2.  Timothy  (^Phleum  j)rate?ise).  3.  Orchard  grass  (^Dac- 
tylis  glomerata.)  4.  Meadow  fescue  (^Festuca pratensit). 
5.  Blue  grass  (^Poa  coinjoressa).  6.  R-ay  grass  {Lolium 
peremte.)  7.  Red  top  [Agrostis  vulgaris).  8.  Sweet- 
scented  vernal  grass  [Anthoxajithuvi  odoratum)." 

The  Siveet- Scented,  Soft  Grass,  or  Holy  Grass,  [Holcus 
odoratus),  according  to  the  Woburn  table,  is  next  to  the  tall 
fescue  and  Timothy  in  point  of  }n;tritive  matter  to  the  acre, 
when  cut  in  seed,  and  it  is  placed  as  far  in  advance  of  all 
others,  in  the  value  of  its  aftermath  ;  yet  scarcely  any  other 
authority  mentions  it  Avith  commendation. 

Without  relying  on  these  experiments,  as  an  unerring 
guide  for  the  American  farmer,  we  append  the  table  on  the 
two  following  pages,  as  the  fullest  and  most  correct  we  have 
on  the  subject,  and  as  affording  a  useful  reference  to  some 
of  the  leading  and  most  desirable  of  the  English  grasses 
T.niiv  of  u'hifth   am  niore  or  lew  cnlfivnted  in  tiii*  conntrv 


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112  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


SOWING  GRASS  SEEDS. 


As  a  general  rile,  grass  seeds  do  best  when  sown  early  1b 
the  spring,  ou  a  fine  tilth  or  mellow  soil.  If  this  is  done 
while  the  frost  is  leaving  the  ground,  no  harrowing  will  be 
necessary,  as  the  spring  rains  wash  tlie  seed  into  the  honey- 
comb left  by  the  frost,  and  secure  to  it  an  early  germination. 
They  are  also  successfully  so^vn  in  August  or  September, 
when  the  fall  rains  will  generally  give  them  sufficient  growth, 
to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  succeeding  winter,  if  the  land 
be  free  from  standing  or  surface  water. 

It  has  recently  been  the  practice  of  many  judicious  far 
mers,  to  renovate  their  old,  worn-out  meadows,  by  giving 
them  a  coating  of  unfermented  manure,  and  then  turn  the 
sod  completely  over.  On  the  surface  thus  plowed,  a  dress- 
ing of  well-rotted  manure  or  compost  with  ashes,  is  spread 
and  thoroughly  harrowed  lemrthwise  of  the  furrows.  The 
seed  is  then  sown  and  slightly  harrowed  in,  and  the  decom- 
posing manure  and  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the  sod  give  an 
immediate  and  Itixuriant  growth. 

Grass  seed  is  generally  sown  with  the  white  grains,  wheat, 
rye  and  oats ;  but  if  the  grass  be  sown  alone  and  sufficiently 
thick,  the  young  plants  will  exclude  the  weeds,  and  occupy 
the  soil  as  profitably  as  can  be  done  with  the  grain.  Thotigh 
the  moisture  and  shade,  which  are  secured  by  the  presence 
of  the  grain,  are  sometimes  an  advantage  to  the  grass  seed, 
yet  it  often  fails  when  thus  sown,  from  the  absence,  per- 
haps, of  sufficient  sun  and  air  ;  or  more  probably,  from  the 
exhausting  crop  of  grain,  u^hich  precedes  it.  We  do  not 
sutficiently  appreciate  the  violation  of  one  of  the  essential 
principles  of  rotation  in  this  practice,  as  the  grass  is  of  the 
same  class  of  plants  as  the  grain,  which  has  just  been  taken 
from  the  field.     When  followed  by  clover,  this  objection  fails 

There  is  usually  a  great  deficiency  of  grass  seed  sown, 
when  permanent  meadows  or  pastures  are  required.  The 
'English  method  is,  to  mix  together  and  sow  on  a  single  acre 
without  any  grain,  t^vo  to  four  bushels  of  various  seeds, 
w^hich  are  the  best  adapted  to  the  purpose.  A  quick  and 
full  growth  -^pidly  covers  the  surface  Avith  a  rich  herbage, 
frequently  surpassing  in  value,  that  of  the  best  natural  pas- 
tures or  meadows. 

LANDS  THAT  SHOULD  BE  KEPT  IN  PERPETUAl  GBAS8, 

Are  such  as  are  frequently  under  w^ater,  a«  salt  and  fresb 


TUE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ET  X  113 

water  meadows ;  such  as  are  liable  to  overflow,  as  the  rich 
bottom  or  interval  lands  upon  a  river  bank ;  heavy,  tenacious 
clays,  and  mountain  or  steep  hill-side  land,  which  is  pecu 
liarly  liable  to  wash  from  rains.  The  low,  bottom  lands 
generally  receive  one  or  more  annual  dressings  from  the  over- 
flowing waters.  The  fertilizing  matters  thus  deposited,  are 
converted  into  hay,  and  become  a  reliable  source  for  increas- 
ing the  muck  heap  for  other  parts  of  the  farm,  without  de- 
manding aiiy  thing  in  return.  The  thick  sward  of  nutritious 
grasses,  which  nature  has  so  lavishly  supplied  to  them,  is  an 
effectual  protection  against  abrasion  and  waste  from  the 
overflowing  water,  while  the  crop,  if  at  any  time  submerged, 
can  receive  comparatively  little  injury.  If  plowed  and  the 
fine  loose  earth  is  exposed  to  a  sweeping  current,  much  of 
the  soil  and  all  the  crop  may  be  lost. 

Strong  clay  lands  cannot  be  properly  worked  without  much 
labor,  unless  when  under-drained  and  well  filled  with  manure ; 
and  they  seldom  exist  in  the  former  condition  in  this  country. 
Yet  these  soils,  next  to  the  fertile,  self-sustaining,  bottom 
lands,  are  the  most  profitable  for  the  various  grasses.  When 
thus  appropriated,  immediately  after  clearing  off  the  native 
growth  of  wood,  the  fine  vegetable  mold  at  the  surface,  aided 
by  the  magazine  of  supplies  contained  in  the  clay  below, 
gives  to  them  the  most  certain  and  permanent  growth.  If 
once  plowed,  this  mold  is  turned  under,  and  the  intractable 
clay  takes  its  place  on  the  surface  ;  and  lacking  those  pecu- 
liarities of  color,  texture  and  chemical  composition,  which  we 
have  before  shown,  are  essential  to  the  most  successful  vegeta- 
tion, th& grass  is  thin,  and  for  years,  comparatively  unproduc- 
tive. When  necessary  to  break  up  such  lands,  they  ought  to  be 
thoroughly  manured,  evenly  laid  down,  and  heavily  seeded  to 
grass  ;  and  if  any  deficiency  of  seed  or  growth  is  manifested, 
they  should  receive  an  addition  of  seed,  with  a  compost 
dressing. 

The  injury  to  plowing  steep  side-hills,  is  sufficiently  ap- 
parent, as  not  only  the  soluble  matters,  but  many  of  the  finer 
particles  of  the  soil,  are  washed  out  and  carried  far  beyond 
reach.  Such  lands  should  be  kept  in  permanent  pasture,  if 
not  suitable  for  mowing.  If  fed  off  by  sheep,  they  drop  most 
of  their  manure  on  the  higher  points,  which  is  partially 
washed  down  and  sustains  the  fertility  of  every  part.  There 
is  still  another  class  of  lands  that  should  not  be  broken  up  fot 
meadows.  These  are  such  as  are  filled  Avith  small  stones 
from  the  siuface  of  which  they  have  once  been  cleared  ;  bu 


114  AMERICAN    AORICrLTtJRE. 

which  plowing  and  harrowing  will  again  bring  to  it,  and 
here  they  will  remain,  a  perpetual  annoyance  to  the  mower, 
unless  removed  at  no  little  trouble  and  expense. 

MEANS  OF  RENOVATING  PERMANENT  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES. 

The  general  theory  adopted  in  regard  to  pasture  lands,  is, 
that  they  are  manured  sufficiently  by  the  animals  feeding  on 
them.  This  opinion  is  only  partially  correct.  Pastures 
wear  out  less  than  other  lands  ;  but  when  milch  cows  and 
working  animals  are  fed  upon  them,  they  carry  off  much 
of  the  produce  of  the  soil,  which  is  never  again  return- 
ed to  it.  Even  the  wool  and  carcass  of  sheep,  with  the 
ordinary  escape  of  the  salts  by  the  washing  of  the  rains, 
will,  after  a  long  time,  impoverish  the  land.  How  much 
more  rapidly  then,  if  much  of  the  manure  and  all  the  milk, 
which  is  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  plants,  is  daily  carried 
from  the  soil.  To  such  an  extent  have  the  permanent,  clay 
pastures  of  Cheshire  (England)  been  impoverished,  that  it 
has  been  found  necessary  to  manure  them  with  crushed 
bones,  which  at  once  brought  up  their  value  more  than  100 
per  cent.  There  is  much  phosphate  of  lime  in  milk,  and 
bones,  which  are  mostly  of  the  same  material,  are  the  best 
manure  that  could  be  used  for  dairy  pastures.  Wool  con- 
tains a  large  proportion  of  sulphur,  and  sulphate  of  lime 
(gypsum)  is  therefore  a  proper  manure  for  sheep  pastures. 
Whatever  has  a  tendency  to  develope  vegetation,  will  gen- 
erally accomplish  the  object  by  yielding  all  the  needful  pro- 
perties. Ashes  and  salt  are  of  the  highest  value  for  pasture 
lands,  and  with  the  addition  in  some  instances,  of  lime,  bones 
and  gypsum,  are  all  that  Avould  ever  be  necessary  for  perma- 
nent pastures.  Fio.n  the  peculiar  action  of  these,  instead 
of  growing  poorer,  pastures  may  become  richer  through 
every  successive  year. 

Permanent  meadow  lands,  if  tviistantly  cropped  loithout 
ma?iures,  may  be  exhausted  with  much  greater  rapidity 
than  pastures,  though  this  depreciation  is  much  more  gradual 
than  with  tillage  lands.  There  is  no  greater  mistake  than 
to  suppose  they  will  keep  in  condition,  by  taking  off  one 
annual  crop  only,  and  either  pasturing  the  aftermath,  or 
leaving  it  to  decay  on  the  ground.  By  recurring  to  the  ta- 
ble of  the  ash  of  plants,  page  35,  it  will  be  seen,  that  the 
analysis  of  hay  there  given,  shows  over  five  per  cent.,  Avhile 
dried  clover  yields  from  seven  to  nine  per  cent,  of  earthy 
tnalter,     Every  particl.^  of  this  is  essential  to  the  success  of 


THE   GRASSES,    MEArOWS,    ETC,  115 

the  plant ;  and  yet,  if  the  land  produces  at  the  rate  of  tWO 
tons  per  acre,  the  salts  are  taken  out  of  it,  to  the  amount  of 
upwards  of  300  lbs.  per  annum.  No  soils  but  such  as  are 
periodically  flooded  with  enriching  waters,  can  long  suffer 
such  a  drain  with  impunity.  They  initst  be  renewed  with 
theproper  manures,  or  barrenness  ivill  ensue.  Ashes,  lime, 
bones,  and  gypsum  (the  latter  especially  to  be  applied  to 
clovers,  its  good  eifects  not  being  so  marked  on  the  grasses), 
are  essential  to  maintain  fertility  ;  and  to  insure  the  greatest 
product,  animal  or  vegetable  manures  must  also  be  added. 

The  proper  manner  of  applying  manure,  is  by  mixing  in 
a  compost  and  scattering  it  over  the  surface,  when  the  grass 
.s  just  commencing  a  vigorous  growth  in  spring,  or  simul- 
taneovxsly  witli  the  fii'st  rains  after  mowing.  The  growing 
vegetation  soon  buries  the  manure  under  its  thick  foliage, 
and  the  refreshing  showers  Avash  its  soluble  portions  into  the 
roots;  and  even  the  gases  that  would  otherwise  escape,  are 
immediately  absorbed  by  the  dense  leaves  and  stalks,  which 
everywhere  surround  it.  When  scattered  broadcast,  imder 
such  circumstances,  the  loss  of  manure  is  trilling,  even  in  a 
state  of  active  decomposition. 

Pasturing  Meadoios. — It  is  an  established  principle  with 
some,  that  close  feeding,  as  often  at  least,  as  once  a  year, 
is  essential  to  the  permanent  productiveness  of  all  meadows. 
There  is  certainly  no  objection  to  feeding  them  soon  after 
being  mown,  and  while  the  ground  is  dry  and  the  sod  firm. 
The  roots  of  the  grass  are  rather  benefitted  than  injured  by 
the  browsing,  and  the  land  is  improved  by  the  droppings 
from  the  cattle.  But  they  should  never  be  pastured  in  early 
spring  or  late  autunui.  It  is  economy  to  purchase  hay  at 
any  price,  rather  than  to  spring-pastiire  meadows,  or  feed 
tliem  too  late. 

Rotation  on  Grass  Lands. — Most  soils  admit  of  a  profitable 
rotation  or  change  of  crops  ;  and  where  this  is  the  case,  it  is 
generally  better  to  allow  grasses  to  make  up  one  of  the 
items  in  this  rotation.  Where  these  are  successfully  grow« 
in  permanent  meadows,  this  change  or  breaking  up  is  less 
to  be  sought  on  their  own  account,  than  for  the  other  crops, 
which  do  better  for  having  a  rich,  fresh  turf  to  revel  in. 
Thus,  potatoes  are  sounder  and  better,  and  yield  more  on 
turf  than  on  old  plowed  ground ;  and  the  grain  crops  are 
generr  'y  more  certain  and  abundant  on  this,  than  on  other 
lands      But  many  of  the  light  soils  retain  the  grasses  only 


116  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

for  a  sl'ort  time.     These  sJjould  be  placed  in  a  rotation, 
which  never  assigns  more  than  two  years  to  grass. 

Time  for  cutting  Grass. — This  must  depend  on  the  kinds 
of  grass  cultivated.  We  have  seen,  that  Timothy  affords 
nearly  double  the  quantity  of  nutriment,  if  cut  after  the  seed 
has  formed,  instead  of  \vhile  in  flower,  and  it  is  then  much 
morr  relished  by  horses  and  a  poition  of  the  stock.  Timo- 
thy .tierefore  should  never  be  cut  for  them,  until  after  the 
se(  i  has  filled.  The  proper  time  for  harvesting,  is  between 
the  milk  and  dough  state,  when  it  will  nearly  ripen  after 
cutting.  Orchard  grass,  on  the  other  hand,  although  pos- 
sessing two-sevenths  more  nutritive  value  for  hay  in  the 
seed,  yet  as  it  is  more  tender,  and  much  preferred  by  stock 
when  cut  in  flower,  and  as  it  continues  to  grow  rapidly 
afterwards,  should  be  always  cut  at  that  time.  Even  a 
few  days  Avill  make  an  important  difference  in  the  value  of 
grass,  ^vhen  cut  for  hay.  The  kind  of  grass,  and  the  stock 
to  which  it  is  to  be  fed,  cannot,  therefore,  be  too  closely  no- 
ted, to  detect  the  precise  moment  when  the  grass  will  best 
subserve  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 

Ctwing  Grass. — Many  farmers  do  not  consider  the  scorch- 
ing effects  of  our  cloudless  July  suns,  and  the  consequence 
is,  that  hay  is  too  much  dried  in  this  country.  Unless  the 
grass  be  A^ery  thick  and  heavy,  it  will  generally  cure  suffi- 
ciently, when  exposed  in  the  swath  for  two  days.  When 
shook  or  stirred  out,  it  should  not  remain  in  this  condition 
beyond  the  first  day,  or  it  will  thus  lose  much  of  its  nutri- 
tive juices  ;  nor  should  dew  or  rain  be  permitted  to  fall  upon 
it,  unless  in  cocks.  It  is  better,  after  partially  dtying,  to  ex- 
pose it  for  three  or  four  days  in  this  way,  and  as  soon  as 
properly  cured,  place  it  under  cover.  It  is  a  good  practice, 
to  salt  hay  when  put  up,  as  it  is  thus  secured  against  damage 
from  occasional  greenness  ;  ai  d  there  is  no  waste  of  the 
salt,  as  it  serves  the  double  object  after  curing  the  hay,  of 
furnishing  salt  to  the  cattle  and  the  manure  heap. 

There  is  a  loss  of  available,  nutritive  matter,  in  the  ordi- 
nary mode  of  curing  hay,  u'h  ch  is  obvious  to  ever)""  care- 
ful feeder.  This  is  conspicuously  evident,  in  the  dimin- 
ished quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  cows,  when  taken  from 
the  pasture  and  put  upon  the  hay  made  from  grass,  similar 
to  that  before  consumed.  To  v.'hat  this  difference  is  owing, 
is  not  yet  fully  ascertained  ;  but  it  is  uidoubtedly  the  result 
of  several  causes  combined. 

The   tender,  suosulent  grass,  in  the  process  of  excessive 


THE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  117 

dryitig,  is  par;  ally  converted  into  woody  fibre,  a  form  in 
some  degree,  equally  removed  from  the  nutritive  properties 
of  the  green  lierbage,  as  slabs  or  saw  dixst  from  the  life-sus- 
taining principles,  yielded  by  fresh,  young  boughs  and  twigs. 
When  there  is  mismanagement  in  the  curing  process,  result- 
ing in  fermentation,  the  saccharine  matter,  so  abundant  in 
the  juices  of  good  grass,  and  so  essential  to  soine  of  the  con- 
stituents of  milk,  is  converted  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid, 
both  of  \\'hich  rapidly  escape,  and  would  be  useless  to  the 
animal  if  retained.  A  series  of  careful  experiments  has 
been  made,  which  showed  the  important  fact,  that  a  cow, 
thriving  on  100  to  120  lbs.  grass  per  day,  required  nine 
pounds  of  barley  or  malt  in  addition  to  this  quantity,  when 
converted  into  hay.  This  is  stated  as  illustrating  a  general 
principle,  without  assigning  to  it  any  definite  or  uniform  ra- 
tio of  deterioration,  which  varies  with  every  variety  of  grass. 
and  the  period  and  manner  of  curing. 

THE  CLOVERS, 

Sometimes,  improperly  called  grasses,  are  botanically  ar- 
ranged in  the  order,  legtiminosa:,  under  the  same  head  Avith 
the  bean,  pea,  locust  and  vetches.  More  than  160  species 
of  clover  have  been  detected  by  naturalists.  Their  proper- 
ties and  characteristics  are  totally  unlike  tlie  grasses,  with 
Avhich  they  agree,  only  in  their  contributing  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  support  of  farm-stock.  There  are  many  va- 
rieties cultivated  abroad,  but  the  attention  of  farmers  in  this 
country,  has  been  limited  to  a  very  few. 

The  Common  Red  or  Northern  Clover,  (  Trifoliiim 
pratense,)  a  biennial,  and  occasionally,  on  calcareous  soils,  a 
triennial,  is  the  species  most  generally  in  use  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  a  hardy,  easily-cultivated  variety,  growing 
luxuriantly  on  every  properly-drained  soil,  of  sufficient 
strength  to  afford  it  nutriment.  It  has  numerous,  strong, 
well-developed  stems,  branching  outwardly  and  vertically 
from  a  single  seed,  each  bearing  broad,  thick  leaves,  which 
are  surmounted  by  a  large,  reddish,  or  purple  flower.  By  the 
analysis  of  Davy,  the  whole  plant  yields  an  amount  of  nu- 
tritive matter,  fully  equal  to  any  other  of  the  clovers. 

Mode  of  Cultivation. — Clover  may  be  sown  broadcast, 
either  in  August  or  September,  or  early  in  the  spring,  with 
most  of  '.he  cereal  grains,  or  the  cultivated  grasses ;  or  it 
may  profitably  constitute  a  crop  by  itself.  The  quantity  of 
seed  required  per  acre,  depends  on  t.:?kind  of  soil.     On  wclJ 


118  AMERICAN    AGE  CULTURE. 

prepared  loams,  ten  or  twelve  pcunds  of  gooi  seed  will  fre* 
queutly  give  a  full  covering  to  the  land,  Avhile  on  clay 
tu'elve  to  sixteen  pounds  are  necessary  per  acre.  When 
sown  Avith  the  grasses,  six  on  the  first,  and  eight  to  twelve 
poimds  on  the  last  soil  will  suffice.  An  additional  amount 
of  seed,  as  with  the  grasses,  will  give  a  finer  quality  of  hay, 
in  consequence  of  multiplying  the  number  of  stalks ;  and 
for  this  purpose,  as  Avell  as  to  insure  it  on  every  spot  of  the 
field,  it  shoitld  always  be  liberally  sown.  The  covering, 
like  that  of  grass  seeds,  should  he  of  the  slightest  kmd  ;  and 
when  sown  very  early  in  the  spring,  or  on  Avell  pulverized 
grounds  and  followed  by  rains,  it  will  germinate  freely  with- 
out harrowing. 

After  the  leaves  are  developed  in  the  spruig,  an  applica- 
tion of  gypsum  should  be  made  by  sowing  broadcast,  at  the 
rate  of  one  to  three  or  four  bushels  per  acre.  The  effect  of 
this  on  clover,  is  singularly  great,  and  it  seems  to  be  aitgmented 
by  applying  it  on  the  leaves.  This  may  perhaps  be  account- 
ed for,  in  the  fact,  that  besides  its  other  tises,  g^'psum  yields  a 
considerable  proportion  both  of  its  sulphuric  acid  and  lime 
to  the  plant,  and  thus  constitutes  a  direct  food.  The  influ- 
ence of  gj'psmn  is  almost  incredible,  in  bringing  up  the  clo- 
vers on  fields  where  they  were  hardly  discernible  before.  This 
may  be  -u-itnessed  in  almost  every  soil  where  gypsum  has  any  ef- 
fect. By  sowing  a  quantity  over  the  grass  plat  containing  either 
the  seeds  or  plants  of  the  clover,  however  thin  or  meagre 
they  may  be,  an  immediate  and  luxuriant  growth  distinguishes 
the  spot  which  has  received  it,  from  all  the  surrounding  field. 

Bones  are  invaluable  manure  for  the  clovers.  The  table 
of  the  ashes  (page  35),  shows  the  great  quantity  of  lime  and 
phosporic  acid  (the  leading  elements  of  bones),  which  the 
clovers  contain,  in  comparison  with  the  rye  grass,  which  is  a 
type  of  the  other  grasses.  Thus,  the  red  clover  has  about 
four  times  as  much  lime,  twenty-six  times  as  much  phos- 
phoric acid,  more  soda  and  sulph.iric  acid,  and  nearly  twice 
and  a  half  as  much  potash  as  the  grass.  The  white  clover 
has  about  four  times  the  potash  ;  the  lucem,  nearly  seven 
times  the  lime,  and  fifty-two  times  the  sulphuric  acid,  con- 
tained in  the  grass. 

Such  are  the  various  demands  of  plants,  ani  the  necessity 
of  providing  each  with  its  specific  food.  And  hence,  the 
advantage  of  cultivating  a  variety  of  grasses  and  clovers  on 
the  same  spot.  Each,  it  is  true,  draws  its  nutriment  from 
the  same  elements,  but  in  suck  unlike  proportions,  that  whea 


TtlR    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  119 

•hey  cease  to  yield  adequate  support  to  one,  the  soil  may 
still  be  rich  in  those  which  will  give  luxuriant  growth  to  others. 
Thus,  two  or  more  of  the  forage  plants,  when  growing  toge- 
ther, may  each  yield  a  large  crop,  swelling  the  aggregate 
product  far  beyond  wiiat  would  be  realized  in  the  separate 
cultivation  of  either.  This  is  a  conspicuous  and  satisfac- 
tory illustration  of  the  utility  of  good  husbandry,  as  shown  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  mixed  grasses  and  forage. 

Time  for  cutting  and  mode  of  curing  Clover. — Clover 
ehould  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and  assumed  a 
brownish  hue.  By  close  cutting,  more  forage  is  secured,  and 
the  clover  afterwards  springs  up  more  rapidly  and  evenly. 
The  swath  unless  very  heavy,  ought  never  to  be  stirred  open, 
but  allowed  to  Avilt  on  the  top.  It  may  then  be  carefully 
turned  over,  and  w'hen  thus  partially  cured,  placed  in  high 
slender  cocks,  and  remain  till  sufficiently  dry  to  remove  into 
the  barn.  Those  who  are  very  careful  in  curing  their  hay, 
provide  cheap  cotton  covers  (tarpaulins  are  better),  which 
are  thrown  over  the  cocks  when  exposed  to  the  rain,  the 
corners  of  which  are  weighted,  to  prevent  being  blown  up 
by  the  wind.  The  long  exposure  of  clover  to  the  weather, 
when  thus  cured,  renders  this  precaution  peculiarly  desirable. 
The  clover  may  be  housed  in  a  much  greener  state,  by  spread- 
mg  evenly  over  it  in  the  mow,  from  ten  to  twenty  quarts  of 
salt  per  ton.  Some  add  a  bushel,  but  this  is  more  than  is 
either  necessary  for  the  clover,  or  judicious  for  the  stock  con- 
suming it ;  as  the  purgative  effects  of  too  much  salt,  induce 
a  wasteful  consumption  of  the  forage.  A  mixture  of  alter- 
nate layers  of  dry  straw  with  the  clover,  by  absorbing  its 
juices,  answ^ers  the  same  purpose,  whi^e  it  materially  im- 
proves the  tiavor  of  the  straw  for  fodder. 

After-management  of  Clover  fields. —  The  second  crop  ol 
clover  may  be  either  saved  for  seed,  mown,  pastured,  or 
tm'ned  under  for  maiuu-e.  As  this  is  a  biennial  when  allow- 
ed to  ripen,  the  socks  generally  die  after  the  second  year  ;  and 
the  crop  is  only  partially  sustained  afterwards,  by  the  seed 
which  may  have  germinated  the  second  year  from  the  first  sow- 
ing, or  from  such  as  has  been  shed  upon  the  surface,  from  the 
seed  matured  on  the  ground.  The  maximum  of  benefit  deriva- 
ble to  the  soil,  in  the  manure  of  the  stubble  and  roots,  is  at- 
tained the  second  year  ;  as  we  have  seen  that  the  dried  roots 
of  the  clover  at  that  time,  are  sometimes  in  the  proporlion  oi 
56  for  every  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  produced  from  them 
in  two  years.     But  the  ground  is  tlaen  so  full  of  tlie  roots,  a.« 


120  A.MERIG,v>    AGRICI  r^TrHE. 

to  check  further  accumulatio  i.  This  is  then  the  proper  time 
for  plowing  up  the  field,  and  renewing  again  its  accustomed 
round  of  crojDs.  If  desirable,  the  clover  may  be  imperfectlj'' 
sustained  on  some  soils,  for  a  few  years,  by  the  addition  of 
gypsum,  bone-dust,  ashes  and  other  manures,  which  will  de- 
velop and  mature  the  ripened  seeds  ;  but  the  greater  tena- 
city of  otlier  plants  and  grasses,  will  soon  reduce  it  to  a 
minor  product  in  the  field. 

Complaijit  is  sometimes  made  among  farmers  in  England, 
whose  fields  have  been  often  in  this  crop,  that  their  land  is 
clover  sick.  This  arises,  simply,  from  the  exhaustion  of  the 
land  of  some  of  those  principles  peculiar  to  clover,  Avhich  are 
needed  to  prepare  them  again  for  bearing  good  crops,  Ro- 
tations and  judicious  manuring  are  the  only  remedies  for  this, 
or  similar  deficiencies  with  other  crops. 

Importance  of  the  Clovers. — The  great  value  of  the  dif- 
ferent clovers  as  forage,  was  well  known  to  the  ancients. 
They  were  extensively  cultivated  by  the  early  Romans,  and 
since  that  period,  they  have  been  extended  throughout  a  large 
part  of  Europe.  They  were  not  introduced  into  Great  Bri- 
tain till  the  16th  century,  but  have  since  constituted  a  profita- 
ble branch  of  its  husbandry.  Their  importance  has  long 
been  acknowledged  in  tho  United  States.  The  nutritive 
matter,  altl\ough  rc«»atively  less  than  fromsome  of  the  grasses, 
is  yet,  in  the  amount  per  acre,  fully  equal  to  the  average 
of  any  other  forage  crop,  which  is  produced  at  the  same  ex- 
pense. It  is  easily  and  cheaply  raised ;  it  is  liable  to  few 
or  no  casualties  or  insect  enemies  in  this  country ;  and  its 
long  tap  roots  are  powerful  auxiliaries  in  the  divi.sion 
and  improvement  of  soils.  Its  broad,  succulent  leaves 
derive  a  large  portion  of  their  nutriment  from  the  atmosphere ; 
and  while  it  aff'ords  a  product  equal  to  the  best  grasses,  it 
draws  a  large  part  of  it  from  the  common  store-house  of 
nature,  without  subjecting  the  farmer  to  the  expense  of  pro- 
viding it  in  his  manures. 

It  is  as  a  fertilizer,  however,  that  it  is  so  decidedly  supe- 
rior to  other  crops.  In  addition  to  the  advantages  before 
enumerated,  the  facility  and  economy  of  its  cultivation,  the 
great  amount  yielded  ;  and  lastly,  the  convenient  form  it  offers 
for  covering  with  the  plow,  contribute  to  place  it  far  above 
any  other  species  of  vegetation  for  this  purpose.  All  the 
grains  and  roots  do  well  after  clover  ;  and  wheat  especially, 
which  foil  nvs  it,  is  more  generally  free  from  disease  than 
when  sown  with  an}   :)the:  manure.     The  introduction  oi 


THE    GRxVSSKS,    MEADOWS,    ETC.  121 

clover  and  lime  in  connection,  has  carried  up  the  price  of 
many  extensive  tracts  of  land,  from  $10  to  $50  per  acre, 
and  has  enabled  the  occupant  to  raise  large  crops  of  wheat, 
where  he  could  get  only  small  crops  of  rye ;  and  it  has  fre- 
quently increased  his  crop  of  wheat  three-fold,  where  it  had 
been  previously  an  object  of  attention. 

It  is  a  common  observation  of  intelligent  farmers,  that 
they  are  never  at  a  loss  to  renovate  such  lands  as  will  pro- 
duce even  a  moderate  crop  of  clover.  Poor  clay  lands  have 
been  brought  to  a  clover-bearing  state,  by  sowing  an  early 
and  late  crop  of  oats  in  the  same  season,  and  feeding  them 
off  on  the  ground.  Poor,  sandy  soils  may  be  made  to  sus- 
tain clover,  with  the  aid  of  manure,  ashes  and  gypsum,  com- 
bined with  the  free  use  of  -the  roller.  This  object  is  much 
facilitated  by  scattering  dry  straw  over  the  surface,  which 
affords  shade,  increases  the  deposit  of  dew,  and  prolongs 
its  effects.  Whenever  the  period  of  clover-producing  is  at- 
tained, the  improvement  of  the  soil  may  be  pushed,  with  a 
rapidity  commensurate  with  the  inclination  and  means  of 
the  owner. 

Harvesting  Clover  Seed. — After  taking  off  one  crop,  or 
pasturing  the  field  till  June,  or  to  such  time  as  experience 
shows  to  be  the  most  proper,  the  clover  should  be  kept  un- 
molested, to  mature  a  full  crop  of  seed.  Early  mowing  re- 
moves the  first  weeds,  and  the  second  growth  of  the  clover 
is  so  rapid,  as  to  smother  them  and  prevent  their  seeding, 
and  the  clover  is  thus  saved  comparatively  clean.  It  is  then 
mown  and  raked  into  very  small  cocks,  and  when  dried  at 
the  top,  they  are  turned  completely  over  without  breaking ; 
and  as  soon  as  well  dried,  they  may  be  carried  to  the 
threshing  floor,  and  the  seeds  beaten  out  with  sticks,  light 
flails,  or  with  a  threshing  machine. 

An  instrument  with  closelj^-set  teeth  and  drawn  by  a 
horse,  is  sometimes  used  for  collecting  the  clover  heads  from 
the  standing  stalks,  from  which  the  seed  is  afterwards  sepa- 
rated. If  wanted  for  use  on  the  farm,  these  heads  are  some- 
times sown  without  threshing.  The  calyx  of  the  clovers  is 
so  firmly  attached  to  the  seed,  as  to  be  removed  with  difh 
culty ;  but  if  thrown  into  a  heap  after  threshing,  and  gently 
pressed  together,  a  slight  fermentation  takes  place,  and  the 
seed  is  afterwards  readily  cleaned.  A  fan  or  clover  machine 
may  be  used  for  cleaning  the  seed  for  market.  The  pro- 
duce is  from  three  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  which  is  worth  to 
the  farmer,  from  $3  to  $5  per  bushel,  of  60  pounds. 
6 


122 


AMERICAN   AGH.ICULT.-RE. 


Southern  Clover  (T.  fnedium)  is  a  smaller  specieii  tluii 
the  T.  pratense,  and  matures  ten  or  fourteen  days  earlier. 
The  soil  best  suited  to  it,  is  nearly  similar  to  that  required 
by  the  northern  clover ;  but  it  succeeds  much  better  on  a 
light,  thin  soil  than  the  latter,  and  it  should  be  sown  thicker. 
Strong  clay  or  rich,  loamy  soils  will  produce  much  heavier 
crops  of  the  larger  kind.  Experience  alone  will  determme 
which  of  these  kinds  should  be  adopted,  under  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  soil  and  fertility,  and  the  uses  for  which  ii  is 
designed. 

White  Creeping  Clover  ( T.  repens,  Fig.  27). — There  are 
several  varieties  of  white  clover,  all 
of  Avhich  a;e  hardy,  nutritious  and 
self-propagating.  Wherever  they 
have  once  been,  the  ground  becomes 
filled  ^vith  the  seed,  which  spring  up 
whenever  an  opportunity  is  afforded 
them  for  growth.  They  are  pecu- 
liarly partial  to  clay  lands  having  a 
rich  vegetable  mold  on  the  surface  ; 
and  the  addition  of  gypsum,  Avill  at 
all  times  give  them  great  luxuriance. 
Their  dwarf  character  renders  them 
unfit  for  the  scythe,  while  the  dense- 
ly-matted mass  of  sweet,  rich  food, 
^'°-  27.  ever    growing    and  ever    abundant, 

makes  them  most  valuable  for  pasture  herbage. 

The  Yellow  Clover,  Hop  Trefoil  or  Shamrock  (  T. 
procumbens),  like  the  white,  is  of  spontaneous  growth,  very 
hardy  and  prolific.  It  bears  a  yellow  flower  and  black  seeds. 
It  is  one  of  those  unostentatious  plants,  which  though  never 
so^vn  and  little  heeded,  help  to  make  up  that  useful  variety, 
w^hich  gives  so  much  value  and  permanence  to  our  best 
pasture  lands. 

Another  variety  of  the  yellow  clover  grows  to  the  heigh', 
of  24  to  30  inches,  in  most  of  the  States,  and  bears  a  pro- 
fusion of  flowers  and  seeds.  This  is  a  good  forage  for  sheep, 
and  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  the  land,  but  is  not  mucli 
relished  by  cattle  or  horses. 

Many  other  of  the  minute  Clovers  and  LEauMiNos.E, 
THE  Wild  Pea,  and  other  species  of  this  family,  abomid  in 
our  untilled  lands,  and  add  greatly  to  the  nutr  tive  character 
of  the  forage,  although  their  merits  and  even  their  existence 
are  scarcely  known. 


THE   GRASSES,    MEADJWS,    ETC. 


123 


Cetmson  or,  Scarlet  Clover  (T.  i?icarnat'irii,  tig. 
28)  is  a  native  of  Italy,  and  mucl.  cul- 
tivated in  France.  It  bears  a  long  head, 
of  bright  scarlet  flowers,  and  in  southern 
Europe  is  a  profitable  crop.  Although  it 
was  introduced  into  this  country  many 
years  since,  it  has  not  hitherto  commended 
itself  to  particular  attention  as  an  object  of 
agriculture. 

LucERN  (Medicago  sativa,    Fig.  29)   is 
'one  of  the  most  productive  plants  for  forage, 
ever  grown.     It  was  extensively  cultivated 
by  the  Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  antiqui- 
ty ;  and  it  has  been  a  prominent   object  of 
attention  in  Italy,  Spain,    France,  Holland 
and  Flanders.     Its  relative  value  as 
compared  with  clover  ( T.  pratense), 
is  decidedly  inferior,  while  its  abso- 
lute value  per  acre,  is  much  greater. 
It  was   early   introduced    into    this 
country.       Chancellor     Livingston 
published   his   experiments    with  it 
from  1791  to  '91,  by  which  he  esti- 
mates that  he  cut  in  one  season,  at 
the  rate  of  6|  tons  per  acre,  in   five 
cuttings,   yielding    a  profit   of  ovef 
§.35  an  acre.     It  bears  three  or  foui 
crops   per   annum,  containing  from 
three  to  eight  tons  of  hay.     Those 
who  have  cultivated  it,   pronounce 
Flo.  59.  it  hardy,  and  as    npable  of  successful 

growth  in  this  country  as  clover  ;  but  tu  reach  the  highest 
product,  it  requires  a  richness  of  soil  and  carefulness  of  culti- 
vation, which  would  give  an  enormous  produce  to  its  more 
humble  rival. 

Manner  of  Cultivation. — It  must  have  a  deep,  dry,  loamy 
soil,  free  from  weeds,  and  Avell  filled  with  manure.  A  suita- 
ble crop  to  precede  it  is  corn  or  potatoes,  heavily  manured 
and  kept  clean.  Tlien  plow  in  the  fall,  and  add  40  bushels 
crushed  bones  per  acre  ;  and  early  in  April,  harrow  tho- 
roughly, and  sow  in  dril»ls,  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 
Stir  the  ground  and  extirpate  the  weeds  with  the  ?ultivatoi 


124 


AMli:RIC;.N    A<5RICULilJEE. 


and  hoe,  carefully  pulling  out  by  hand  any  that  may  l« 
found  in  the  drills.  It  may  be  lightly  cropped  the  first  year, 
and  more  freely  the  second,  but  it  does  not  attain  full  maturi- 
ty till  the  third.  The  roots  strike  deep  into  the  ground,  and 
being  a  perennial,  it  requires  no  renewal  except  from  the 
loss  of  the  plants  by  casualties.  It  should  be  cut  before 
growing  too  large,  and  cured  like  clover. 

Liquid  manure  is  good  for  it,  as  are  also  gypsum  and  ashes. 
Barn-yard  manure  is  occasionally  necessary ;  but  to  avoid 
weeds,  it  must  be  thoroughly  fermented  to  destroy  the  seeds. 
It  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  but  the  rapid  progress  of 
weeds  and  grass  in  the  soil,  "will  soon  extirpate  it  if  they  are 
suffered  to  aroAv ;  and  there  is  no  means  of  effectually  eradi- 
cating them  but  by  cultivating  the  iucern  in  drills,  and  the 
hoe  and  cultivator  can  then  Iceep  the  weeds  in  subjection.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  desirable  plants  for  soiling.  From  the  care 
and  attention  required,  the  cultivation  of  Iucern  is  properly 
limited  to  an  advanced  state  of  agriculture  and  a  dense 
population,  wiiere  labor  is  cheap  and  products  high.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  large  cities,  it  may  be  advantageously 
grown  and  in  all  places  where  soiling  is  practiced. 

San-Foin  {Hedysarum  onohrycliis.  Fig.  30),  the  esparcette 
of  the  French,  is  a  native  of  the  chalk 
soils  of  Europe,  and  is  best  adapted 
to  strong  calcareous  lands.  On  such, 
it  is  a  profitable  herbage,  as  the  roots 
penetrate  to  a  great  depth,  and  yield 
large  burdens  of  nutritious  fodder. 
It  will  also  grow  successfully  in  deep 
garden  molds.  Though  often  at- 
teiupted,  we  are  not  aware  that  it  has 
been  raised  to  any  extent  in  this  coun- 
try. 

Bokhara  or  Sweet-scented  Clo- 
ver [Melilotus  major)  is  a  tall,  shrub- 
like plan',    growing  to  the  height  of 
1''%.  four  to  six  feet  with  branches,  whose 

Fig.  30.  extremities  bear  uumerous  smo'l  white 

flowers  of  great  fragrance.  When  full  grown,  it  is  too 
coarse  for  forage,  but  if  thick  and  cut  young,  it  yields  a  pro- 
fusion of  green  or  winter  fodder.  It  should  be  sown  in  the 
spring,  with  about  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  i  i  drills  16 
to  20  inches  apart.  It  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  and  cul- 
tivated like  Iucern      It  requires  a  rich,  mellow,  loamy  soil 


THE    GRASSES,    MEADOWS,    ETC. 


12a 


Spitrry  {Spergnla  arvensis.  Fig.  31)  might  probably  be 
introduced  into  American  husbandry 
for  forage,  Avith  decided  advantage. 
It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  grows  spon- 
taneously in  the  rnddle  States.  Its 
chief  merit  consists,  in  its  growing 
on  soils  too  thin  to  bear  clover.  On 
such,  it  can  be  judiciously  used  to 
bring  them  up  to  the  clover-bearing 
point,  from  which  they  can  be  taken, 
and  carried  forward  much  more 
rapidly  by  the  clovers.  Van  Voght 
says,  "  it  is  better  than  red  or  white 
Fig.  31.  clover ;  the  cows  give  more  and  bet- 

ter milk  when  fed  on  it,  and  it  improves  the  land  in  an  ex- 
traordinary degree.  If  the  land  is  to  lie  several  years  in 
pasture,  white  clover  must  be  sown  with  it.  When  sown 
in  the  middle  of  April,  it  is  ripe  for  pasture  by  the  end  of 
.May.  If  eaten  off  in  June,  the  land  is  turned  flat  and  ano- 
ther crop  is  sown,  which  affords  fine  pasture  in  August  and 
September.  This  operation  is  equivalent  to  a  dressing  of 
ten  loads  of  manure  per  acre.  The  blessing  of  spurry,  the 
clover  of  sandy  lands,  is  incredible  when  rightly  em.ployed." 
Three  crops  can  be  gro\vn  upon  land  in  one  season,  Avhich,  if 
turned  in  or  fed  on  the  ground,  can  be  made  a  means  of 
rapid  improvement  to  the  soil. 

PASTURES. 

It  is  too  often  the  case,  that  pastures  are  neglected,  and 
like  woodlands,  are  allowed  to  run  to  such  vegetation  as  un- 
assisted nature  may  dictate.  As  a  necessary  consequence, 
their  forage  is  frequently  meagre  and  coarse,  and  incapable, 
either  in  quantity  or  quality,  of  supporting  half  the  number 
of  cattle  in  a  poor  condition,  that  might  otherwise  be  full- 
fed  from  the  same  surface.  But  if  "we  consider,  that  pastures 
furnish  most  of  the  domestic  stock  with  their  only  food,  for 
seven  months  of  the  year  at  the  North,  and  generally  for 
nine  or  ten  months  at  the  South,  they  may  well  be  deemed 
worthy  the  particular  attention  of  the  farmer. 

Pastures  ought  to  be  properly  divided,  and  it  is  a  diffi- 
cult point  to  determine  between  the  comparative  advantages 
of  small  ranges,  and  the  expense  and  inconvenience  of  keep- 
ing up  numerous  divisions.  The  latter  require  a  large  out 
lay  on  every  farm,  not  only  for  the  first  cost  of  :viftexials  and 


126  AMERICAN    AGRICTTLTTTRE. 

the  ajinual  repairs,  but  from  the  loss  of  land  occupied  by 
them  ;  and  they  are  further  objectionable  from  their  harbor- 
ing weeds  and  vermin.  Yet  it  is  beneficial  to  give  animals 
a  change  of  feed ;  and  the  grass  comes  up  evenly  and  grows 
iindisturbed.  if  the  cattle  be  removed  for  a  while.  There  is 
a  iuri-her  advantage,  in  being  able  to  favor  some  particular 
individuals  oi  .'.asses  of  animals.  Thus,  fattening  stock 
ought  to  have  the  best  feed  ;  milch  cows  and  working  ani- 
mals the  next ;  then  young  stock  ;  while  sheep  will  thrive 
on  shorter  feed  than  either,  and  greedily  consume  most 
plants  which  the  others  reject.  By  this  means,  a  field  will 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  all  plants  ^vhich  animals  will  eat, 
and  the  remainder  should  be  extirpated.  The  same  care 
ought  to  be  taken  to  prevent  the  propagation  of  weeds  in  pas- 
tures as  in  other  fields.  Many  of  these,  mullen,  thistles  and 
the  like,  multiply  prodigiously  from  sufferance,  and  if  un- 
checked, will  soon  overspread  the  farm. 

Every  pasture,  if  possible,  should  be  provided  with  run- 
ning water  and  shade  trees,  or  other  ample  protection  against 
a  summer's  sun.  The  last  can  at  all  times  be  secured  by  a 
few  boards,  supported  on  a  light,  temporary  frame.  Exces- 
sive heat  exhausts,  and  sometimes  sickens  animals  ;  conse- 
quently, it  materially  diminishes  the  effects  of  food  in  promo- 
ting the  secretion  of  milk,  and  the  growth  of  wool  and  flesh. 
All  grounds  immediately  after  long  rains,  whether  in  early 
spring  or  late  autumn,  and  especially,  after  the  winter's 
frosts  have  just  left  them,  are  much  injured  by  the  poaching 
of  cattle,  if  allowed  to  run  upon  them.  Clay  lands  and  those 
which  have  been  recently  seeded,  are  peculiarly  susceptible 
of  injury  from  this  cause  ;  and  from  such  fields  and  at  such 
times,  every  animal  should  be  rigidly  excluded.  On  late 
and  off  early,  is  a  good  rule  to  be  adopted  for  spring  and 
fall  pasturing. 

Wherever  the  grasses  disapjiear,  fresh  seeds  should  be 
added  and  harrowed  in  ;  mosses  must  be  destroyed ;  they 
should  be  properly  drained,  and  every  attention  paid  to  them 
that  is  bestowed  on  the  mowing  lands,  except  that  they  sel- 
dom reqixire  manures.  But  ashes,  gypsum,  lime  and  bone 
dust  may  sometimes  be  applied  to  them  with  great  profit. 
Pastures  should  take  their  course  in  rotation,  when  they  get 
bare  of  good  herbaae  or  full  of  weeds,  and  it  is  possible  to 
break  them  up  advantageously.  Though  many  choice, 
natural  forage  plants  may  thus  be  destroyed,  yet  if  again 
turned  into  grass  at  the  ps')per  period,  and  they  are  sown 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION. 


127 


with  a  plentiful  stock  of  assorted  grass  seeds,  on  a  rich  and 
well-prepared  surface,  they  will  soon  place  themselves  in  a 
productive  state. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


GRAIN  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

WHEAT  (Triticnm). 


Fie.  32.  Fig.  3S.  Fig.  34. 

Spring  Ba.ld  AVheat.    Winter  B&ld  Whc.w     Wi>-rER  Bearded  Wheat. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  generally 
cultivated  of  the  cereal  grains  (or  gra?.?es  as  they  are  bo- 
tanieally  termed),  thou2:h  both  rice  and  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  contribute  to  the  support  of  a  larger  population.  It  is 
found  in  every  latitude,  excepting  tho.~e  which  approach  too 
"learly  to  the  poj'esor  equator ;  but  it  can  be  profitably  raised, 


128  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

only  within  such  as  are  strictly  denominated  temperate 
Linnseus  describes  but  six  varieties,  yet  later  botanists  enu 
merate  about  thirty,  whi'**  of  the  sub-varieties,  there  aie 
several  hundred. 

The  only  division  necessary  for  our  present  purpose,  is  of 
the  winter  wheat  [Triticuni  hyber7iicm),  and  spring  or 
summer  wheat  ( T.  cBStivum).  The  former  requires  the  ac- 
tion of  frost  to  bring  it  ^o  full  maturity,  and  is  sown  in  au- 
tumn. Germination  befv^re  exposure  to  frost,  does  not,  how- 
ever, seem  absolutely  essential  to  its  success,  as  fine  crops 
have  been  raised  from  seed  sown  early  in  the  spring,  after 
having  been  saturated  with  w^ater  and  frozen  for  some  weeks. 
It  has  also  been  successfully  raised,  when  sowed  early  in  the 
season,  v/hile  the  frost  yet  occupied  the  ground. 

Spring  and  winter  wheat  may  be  changed  from  one  to  the 
other,  by  sowing  at  the  proper  time  through  successive  sea- 
sons, and  without  material  injury  to  their  character.  The 
latter  grain  is  by  far  the  most  productive  ;  the  straw  is  stouter  ; 
the  head  more  erect  and  full ;  the  grain  plumper  and  heavi- 
er, and  the  price  it  bears  in  market,  from  eight  to  fifteen  per 
cent,  higher  than  that  of  spring  wheat.  This  difi'erence  of 
price  depends  rather  on  the  appearance  of  the  flour  and  its 
greater  whiteness,  than  on  any  intrinsic  deficiency  in  its 
substantial  qualities.  The  analysis  of  Davy  gave  in  100 
parts  of 

CJluten, 

Spring  wheat  of  1801,  24 

Best  Sicilian  winter  wheat,  21 

Good  English  winter  wheat  of  1803,  19 

Blighted  wheat  of  1804,  13 

The  above  analysis  gives  the  greatest  nutritive  value  to 
the  spring  v/heat,  as  the  gluten  (animalized  matter)  cons  i- 
tutes  the  most  important  element  in  flour.  It  will  also  le 
noti  jed,  that  the  Sicilian  yields  about  two  per  cent,  more 
gluten  than  the  English,  which  enables  the  flour  to  absorb 
and  retain  a  much  larger  proportion  of  water  when  made 
into  bread.  This  is  what  is  termed  by  the  bakers,  strength  ; 
and  when  gluten  is  present  in  large  proportions,  other  qual- 
ities being  equal,  it  adds  materially  to  the  value  of  flour. 
American  Avheat  also  contains  more  gluten  than  English, 
and  that  from  the  southern  States,  still  more  than  that  from 
the  northern.  An  eminent  baker  of  London  .'■ays,  American 
flour  will  absorb  f:  Dm  eight  to  fourteen  per  cent,  more  of  it* 


Insoluble 

starch, 

,     matter. 

70 

6 

74 

5 

77 

4 

53 

34 

GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION,  129 

owr.  weight  of  water,  when  manufactured  into  bread  or  bis- 
cuit, than  their  own  ;  and  another  reUable  authority  asserts, 
that  wliile  14  lbs.  of  American  flour  will  make  21 5  lbs  of 
bread,  the  same  quantity  of  English  flour  will  make  only 
18i  lbs. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  drier  or  hotter  the  climate  in  which 
the  grain  is  raised,  the  greater  is  the  evaporation,  and  the 
more  condensed  is  the  farina  of  the  grain,  and  consequently 
the  more  moisture  it  is  capable  of  absorbing  when  again  ex- 
posed to  it.  Certain  varieties  of  wheat  possess  this  quality 
in  a  higher  degree  than  others.  Some  manures  and  some 
soils  also  give  a  diff'erence  with  the  same  seed  ;  but  for  or- 
dinary consumption,  the  market  value  (which  is  the  great 
consideration  with  the  farmer),  is  highest  for  such  wheat  as 
gives  the  largest  quantity  of  bright  flour,  with  a  due  pro- 
portion of  gluten.  Other  prominent  differences  exist  among 
the  leading  cultivated  varieties  of  wheat,  such  as  the  bearded 
and  bald  or  beardless ;  the  white  and  red  chaff;  those  hav- 
ing large  and  strong  stalks  ;  or  a  greater  or  a  less  tendency 
to  tiller  or  to  send  out  new  shoots.  There  is  great  room  for 
selection  in  the  several  varieties,  to  adapt  them  to  the  differ- 
ent soils,  situations,  and  climate  for  which  they  are  desifrned. 

P reparation  of  t}tela7id  for  soioing.  Wheat  is  partial  to 
a  well-prepared  clay  or  heavy  loam,  and  this  is  improved, 
when  it  contains  either  naturally  or  artificially,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  lime.  Many  light,  and  all  marly  or  calcareous 
soils,  if  in  proper  condition,  will  give  a  good  yield  of  wheat. 
Lime  is  an  important  aid  to  the  full  and  certain  growth  of 
wheat,  checking  its  exuberance  of  straw  and  liability  to 
rust,  and  steadily  aiding  to  fill  out  the  grain.  A  rich,  mel- 
low turf  or  clover  ley  is  a  good  bed  for  it  ;  or  land  which 
has  been  well  manured  and  cleanly  cultivated  in  roots  or 
corn  the  preceding  year. 

Fresh  barn-yard  manure  applied  directly  to  the  wheat  crop, 
is  objectionable,  not  only  from  its  containing  many  foreign 
seeds,  but  from  its  tendency  to  excite  a  rapid  growth  of  weak 
straw,  thus  causing  the  grain  both  to  lodge  and  rust.  The 
same  objection  lies  against  sowing  it  on  rich,  alluvial  or  veo-e- 
lable  soils ;  and  in  each,  the  addition  of  lime  or  ashes,  or  both, 
will  correct  these  evils.  A  dressing;  of  charcoal,  ha^in 
many  instances  been  found  an  adequate  preventive  ;  anu  so 
beneficial  has  it  proved  in  France,  that  it  has  been  extensive- 
ly introduced  there  for  the  wheat  crop.  A  successful  exam- 
ple of  uninterrupted  cropping  with  wheat,  through  severaJ 
6* 


i3C  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

years,  has  li  een  furnished  by  a  Maryland  farmer,  who  used 
fresh  barn -yard  manure,  with  lime.  But  this  is  an  exception, 
not  a  rule ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  profitable  cultivation 
requires,  that  wheat  should  take  its  place  in  a  judicious  ro- 
tation. The  great  proportion  of  silica  in  the  straw  of  cereal 
grains,  (amounting  in  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  rye,  to  about 
four  fifths  of  the  total  of  ash  from  the  grain  and  straw), 
shows  the  necessity  of  having  ample  provision  made  for  it  in 
the  soil,  and  in  a  form  susceptible  of  ready  assimilation  by 
the  plant.  This  is  afforded  by  ashes,  and  from  the  action  of 
lime  upon  the  soil. 

Depth  of  Soil  is  indispensable  to  large  Crops. — The 
wheat  plant  has  two  sets  of  roots,  the  first  springing  from 
the  seed  and  penetrating  downwards,  while  the  second  push 
themselves  laterally,  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  from  the 
first  joint.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  extract  their  food  from 
every  part  of  the  soil,  and  the  product  \vill  be  found  to  be  in 
the  ratio  of  its  extent  and  fertility.  Under-draining  ana 
sub-soil  plowing  contribute  greatly  to  the  increase  of  crops, 
and  it  is  essential  that  all  surface  water  be  entirely  removed. 
Wheat,  on  heavy  clay  lands,  is  peculiarly  liable  to  winter 
kill,  unless  they  are  \vell-drained.  This  is  owing  to  suc- 
cessive freezing  and  thawing,  by  ■which  the  roots  are  broken 
or  thrown  out.  When  this  is  done  to  a  degree  that  will 
materially  diminish  the  crop,  the  naked  spots  may  be  sown 
with  spring  wheat.  Any  considerable  portion  of  the  latter, 
will  lessen  the  value  for  sale,  but  it  is  equally  good  for  do- 
mestic use.  The  land  should  be  duly  prepared  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed,  by  early  and  thorough  plowing,  and  harrow- 
ing, if  necessary. 

Selection  and  preparation  of  Seed. — Many  persons  se- 
lect their  seed  by  casting,  or  throwing  the  grain  to  some 
distance  on  the  floor,  using  only  such  as  reaches  the  farthest. 
This  is  a  summary  way  of  selecting  the  heaviest,  plumpest 
grain,  which  if  Sprengel's  theory  be  correct,  is  attended  with 
no  advantage,  beyond  that  of  separating  it  from  the  lighter 
Beeds  of  chess  or  weeds.  It  is  certain,  that  the  utmost 
care  should  be  taken  in  removing  everything  from  it  but 
pure  wheat,  and  this  should  be  exclusively  of  the  kind  re- 
quired. When  wheat  is  not  thoroughly  clea:,  ""d  by  casting, 
a  si^fe  or  riddle  may  be  used  ;  or  it  should  eve,,  be  picked 
over  by  hand,  rather  than  sow  anything  but  the  pure  seed. 

Previous  to  sowing,  a  strong  brine  ought  to  be  made  of 
salt  and  water,  and  in  this  the  grain  is  to  be   wrshed   foT 


GRAIN   AND   ITS    CULTIVATION.  131 

five  minuter,  taking  care  to  skim  off  all  liglit  ar.d  foreign 
seeds.  If  the  grain  be  smutty,  tlis  washing  should  be  re- 
peated in  another  clean  brine,  when  it  may  be  taken 
out  and  intimately  mixed  with  one  twelfth  its  bulk  of  fresh 
pulverized  quick-Hnie.  This  kills  all  smut,  cleans  out 
weeds  from  the  grain,  and  insures  early  and  rapid  growth 
When  the  seed  is  not  smutty,  it  may  be  prepared  by  soak- 
ing or  sprinkling  with  stale  urine,  and  afterwards  mixed  with 
the  lime ;  and  if  well  done,  this  also  will  prevent  smut, 
though  the  first  is  most  certain.  (See  varieties  of  seed  fol- 
lowing, for  further  directions.) 

Quantity  of  Seed  and  time  of  sowing. — On  well  pul- 
verized, ordinary  wheat  soils,  about  live  pecks  of  seed  are 
sown  to  the  acre,  while  rough  laud,  clay  soils  and  such  as  are 
very  fertile,  require  from  six  to  eight.  In  Maryland,  but  three 
pecks  are  frequently  sown,  and  some  of  the  best  crops  have 
been  raised  from  only  two  pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre,  on  a 
finely-pulverized  soil.  It  takes  more  seed  when  full  and 
plump  than  wheii  shrunken,  as  there  may  be  nearly  two  of 
the  latter  to  one  of  the  former,  in  the  same  measure.  A  dif- 
ference is  to  be  observed  according  to  the  wheat,  some  need- 
ing more  than  others.  A  large  quantity  of  seed,  produces  an 
earlier  groAVth  of  light  stra^v  and  head,  but  does  not  usually 
increase  the  aggregate  crop.  There  is  always  a  tendency 
in  wheat  and  most  of  the  cereal  grasses,  to  tiller  or  send  out 
new  shoots  for  future  stalks.  This  is  a  law  of  these  plants, 
which  comijels  them  to  make  the  greatest  effort  to  cover  the 
whole  ground ;  and  sometimes  a  single  seed  will  throw 
out  more  than  100  stalks.  In  early  sowing,  the  wheat  tillers 
in  the  autumn;  in  late  sowing  this  is  done  in  part  only,  till 
the  ensuing  spring.  Thick  sowing,  is  a  substitute  for  tiller- 
ing, to  the  extent  that  would  other  wise  be  induced,  and  is  equi- 
valent to  an  earlier  sowing  of  a  smaller  quantity.  The  time 
for  sowing  in  the  northern  States,  is  from  the  10th  to  20th 
September.  If  sown  earlier,  it  is  liable  to  attack  from  the 
Hessian  fly,  and  if  later,  it  does  not  have  time  to  root  as  well  ; 
and  is  in  more  danger  of  being  thrown  out  by  the  frosts  or  oi 
winter  killing.  Late  sowing  is  also  more  subject  to  rust  the 
following  season,  from  its  later  ripening. 

Sowing. — When  the  ground  has  been  well  mellowed,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  and  thoroughly  harrowed  in 
Rolling  is  a  good  practice,  as  it  presses  the  earth  closely  up 
on  the  seed  and  facilitates  germination ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
seed  is  covereC,  the  water  furrows  should  be  cleaned  out. 


i32  AMERICAN    AGKltULTUKE. 

and  again  late  in  autumn,  and  early  in  the  following  spnnir 
In  northern  Europe,  it  has  been  found  a  preventive  against 
winter  killing  on  strong  clays,  to  sow  the  wheat  in  the  bot- 
tom of  each  furrow,  six  inches  deep,  and  cover  it  with  tiie 
succeeding  one.  The  wheat  thus  planted,  comes  up  as  soon 
as  on  the  fields  sown  broad-cast  and  harrowed,  grows  more 
vigorously,  withstands  the  winters  and  produces  large  crop*. 
Plowing  in  wheat  with  a  light  furrow,  is  perhaps,  under  any 
circumstances,  better  than  harrowing,  as  the  wheat  is  there- 
by all  buried,  and  at  a  more  suitable  depth  than  can  be  done 
by  the  harroAV.  The  roughness  of  the  furrows  when  lefr 
without  harrowing,  is  advantageous  in  heavy  or  clay  lands, 
and  only  injurious  in  light  qr  sandy. 

After  Culture. — Harrowing  in  the  spring,  adds  to  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  by  loosening  the  soil;  and  the  loss  of 
the  few  plants  thus  destroyed,  is  much  more  than  compensa- 
ted by  the  rapid  tillering  and  vigor  of  those  \vhich  remain. 
Sowing  in  drills  and  hoeing  between  them,  is  much  prac- 
ticed in  Europe.  The  additional  amount  thus  frequently 
raised,  would  seem  to  justify  the  adoption  of  this  mode  of 
cultivation  in  this  country;  and  it  should  at  least  be  done, 
so  far  as  to  give  it  a  fair  trial.  On  light  soils,  rolling  the 
Avheat  both  in  fall  and  spring,  is  highly  advantageous. 
When  the  growth  is  luxuriant,  decided  benefit  has  attended 
feeding  oif  the  wheat  on  the  field  in  the  fall  or  spring,  tak- 
ing care  to  permit  the  animals  to  go  on,  only  when  the 
ground  is  firm. 

Enemies  of  Wheat. — These  are  numerous.  It  is  subject 
to  the  attack  of  the  Hessian  fly,  if  sown  too  early  in  the 
fall,  and  again  the  ensuinir  spring,  there  being  two  annual 
swarms  of  the  fly,  early  in  ]May  and  September.  When 
thus  invaded,  harrowing  or  rolling,  by  which  the  maggots 
or  flies  are  displaced  or  driven  off,  is  the  only  remedy  of 
much  avail.  Occasionally,  other  flies,  and  sometimes  wheat 
worms  commit  great  depredation.  There  is  no  effectual 
remedy  Icnown  against  any  of  these  marauders,  beyond  roll- 
ing, brushing  and  harrowing.  Dtisting  the  grain  with  lime, 
ashes  and  soot,  have  been  frequently  tried,  as  have  also  the 
sprinkling  them  with  urine,  dilute  acids  and  other  liquids  oi 
steeps.  Fumigating  them  in  the  evening,  when  the  sinoke 
creeps  along  through  the  standing  grain,  has  been  often  t  "ied, 
but  without  decided  success.  For  this  last  purpose,  a  sn;  ■>ul- 
dering  heap  of  damp  brush,  weeds  or  chips,  is  placed  on  the 
v.'indward  side  of   he  fiel ! ;  and  its  efficacy  may  be  increasejJ 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  133 

by  the  addit'on  of  brimstone.  Whenever  obnoxious  to  these 
attacks,  the  only  safety  is,  to  place  the  crop  in  the  best  con- 
dition \  D  withstand  them,  by  hastening  its  growth,  and  by 
the  propagation  of  the  most  hardy  varieties.  An  application 
of  nnleached  ashes  in  damp  Aveather,  will  sometimes  dimin- 
ish the  ravages  of  worms  at  the  root.  Quick-lime  has  the 
same  effect  on  all  insects  with  which  it  comes  in  contact ; 
but  it  should  be  carefully  applied  to  avoid  injury  to  the 
plants. 

Smut  is  a  dark  brown  or  blackish,  parasitic  fungus,  which 
grows  upon  the  head  and  destroys  the  grain.  The  only 
remedy  fur  this,  is  washing  the  seed  in  two  or  three  succes- 
sive strong  brines,  and  intimately  mixing  and  coating  it  with 
quick-lime  before  sowing. 

Rust  atfects  the  straw  of  wheat  while  the  grain  is  form- 
ing, and  before  it  is  fully  matured.  It  is  almost  always 
present  in  the  field,  but  is  not  extensively  injurious  except 
in  close,  showery  and  hot  (muggy)  weather.  The  straw  then 
bursts  from  the  exuberance  of  the  sap,  which  is  seen  to 
exude,  and  a  crust  or  iron-colored  rust  is  formed  in  longitu- 
dinal ridges  on  the  stalk.  It  is  generally  conceded,  that 
this  rust  is  a  fungus  or  minute  parasitic  plant  Avhich  subsists 
on  the  sap ;  but  whether  it  be  the  cause  or  consequence  of 
this  exudation  is  not  fully  determined.  There  is  no  remedy 
for  this  when  it  appears,  and  the  only  mitigation  of  its  ef- 
fects, is  to  cut  and  harvest  the  grain  at  once.  The  straw  in 
this  case  will  be  saved,  and  frequently,  a  tolerable  crop  of 
grain,  which  partially  matures  after  cutting ;  w^hile  if  suffer- 
ed to  stand,  both  straw  and  grain  will  be  almost  totally  lost. 
The  only  i^reventives  experience  has  hitherto  found,  are  the 
selection  of  hardy  varieties  of  grain,  which  partially  resist 
the  effects  of  rust ;  sowing  on  elevated  lands  where  the  air 
has  a  free  circulation ;  the  abundant  use  of  saline  manures, 
salt,  lime,  gypsum,  and  charcoal;  the  absence  of  recent 
animal  manures  ;  and  early  sowing,  Avhich  matures  the  plant 
before  the  disease  commences  its  attack. 

Harvesting. — The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after 
the  lowest  part  of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain 
is  yet  in  the  dough  state,  and  easily  compressible  between 
the  thumb  and  linger.  Hepeated  experiments  have  demon- 
strated, that  wheat  cut  at  this  time,  will  yield  more  in  meas- 
ure, of  heavier  Aveight,  and  a  larger  quantity  of  sweet,  white 
flour.  If  early  cut,  a  longer  time  is  required  for  curing  bp 
fore  storing  or  threshi'\gr. 


134 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


Threshing  is  usualh' done  among  extens.ve  farmers,  with 
some  one  of  tlie  large  machines  taken  into  the  field,  and 
driven  by  horse  power.  The  vise  of  these  enables  the  farmer 
to  raise  some  of  the  choicest  kinds  of  grain,  whose  propaga- 
tion before  their  introduction  was  limited  from  the  great 
difiicuLy  of  separating  the  grain  from  the  head.  He  can 
also  push  his  wheat  into  market  at  once,  if  the  price  is  high, 
\vhich  is  frequently  the  case  immediately  after  harvest ;  and 
he  saves  all  expense  and  trouble  of  moving,  storing,  loss 
from  shelling  and  vermin,  interest  and  insurance.  For  the 
moderate  farmer,  a  small  single  or  double  horse  machine,  or 
hand  threshing  in  whiter,  where  there  is  leisure  for  it,  is 
more  economical  than  the  six  or  eight  horse-thresher. 

Mowing  or  Stacking. — When  stored  in  the  straw,  the 
grain  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  b*^^<^'ng  or  mouldin*^. 


Fig.  35.  Fig.  36. 

Unless  very  drj%  when  carried  into  the  barn,  this  can  only 
be  avoided  by  laying  it  on  scaffolds,  ^vhere  there  is  a  free 
circulation  of  air  around  and  partially  through  it.  If  placed 
in  a  stack,  it  should  be  well  elevated  from  the  ground ;  and 
if  the  stack  be  large,  a  chimney  of  lattice  or  open  ^vork 
should  be  left  from  the  bottom,  extending  through  the  centre 
to  the  top  ;  or  a  large  bundle  may  be  kept  at  the  surface  in 
the  middle,  and  drawn  upwards  as  the  slack  rises,  thus  leav 
ing  an  opening  for  circulation,  entirely  through  the  centre  of 
the  grain.     Additional  security  would  be  aftbrded  bysimilai 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    .'TJLTIVATION.  136 

openings  at  suitable  intervals,  in  a  horizontal  direction.  Mice 
and  rats  may  be  avoided,  by  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
stack  on  posts  or  stones,  elevated  leyond  their  reach,  and 
covered  at  the  top  with  projecting  caps.  Weevils  sometime-s 
affect  the  grain  after  storing.  These  may  be  almost  if  net 
wholly  prevented,  by  thorough  cleanliness  of  the  premises 
where  the  grain  is  stored. 

The  cut  on  the  preceding  page,  Fig.  35,  shows  a  frame 
for  stacking,  combining  the  advantages  of  circulation  through 
the  centre,  and  an  elevation  which  secures  the  grain  from 
the  depredations  of  vermin.  Fig.  36,  shows  a  stack  com- 
plete, which  is  better  made  and  more  neatly  finished  than  i<^ 
too  often  done  in  this  country.  It  is  an  important  item  of 
husbandry,  so  to  stack  grain  as  to  avoid  loss  from  the  ad- 
mission of  rain.  No  inconsiderable  share  of  the  stack,  is 
thus  frequently  destroyed. 

The  straw  and  chajf  of  wheat  should  never  be  wasted. 
This  is  the  most  nutritious  of  the  cereal  straws.  It  yields 
good  fodder  to  cattle  in  time  of  scarcity,  and  is  always  good 
for  this  object,  Avhen  cut  and  mixed  Avith  meal  or  roots  ; 
and  particularly,  when  early  harvested  and  well  cured. 
Turneps  and  straw  are  the  only  food  of  half  the  cattle,  and 
most  of  the  sheep,  throughout  Great  Britain,  and  no  where 
do  they  thrive  more  rapidly,  or  better  remunerate  their  own- 
ers, than  in  that  country.  It  is  of  great  use  also,  as  bedding 
for  cattle  and  as  an  absorbent  of  animal  and  liquid  manures. 
It  furnishes  in  itself  the  best  manure  for  succeding  grain 
crops ;  containing  large  proportions  of  the  salts  or  ash  required. 
When  threshed  on  the  field  and  not  wanted  for  cattle,  it 
should  be  scattered  over  the  ground,  and  either  plowed  in  or 
suffered  to  decay  on  the  surface. 

VARIETIES  OF  SEED. 

Much  depends  on  the  judicious  selection  of  seed.  Some 
ioils  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  wheat  growing,  and  on  these 
should  be  sown  tiie  finest  varieties,  which  are  generally  of  a 
more  delicate  character.  Wheat  on  other  soils  is  liable  to 
many  casualties,  and  on  such,  only  the  hardier  kinds  should 
be  propagated.  Careful  and  repeated  trials  with  different 
varieties  of  seeds,  on  each  field  or  on  those  which  are  simi- 
lar, will  alone  determine  their  adaptation  to  the  soil.  There 
are  several  choice  varieties  of  winter  wheat  in  cultivation 
in  the  United  States,  some  of  which  stand  higher  in  one, 
and  some  in  another  se-ition      Some  in  high  repute  abr^d 


136  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURIST. 

have  been  introduced  into  this  country,  and  proved  to  be 
valuable  acquisitions ;  while  others  have  been  found  decided- 
ly inferior  to  many  of  the  long  adopted  varieties.  Experi- 
ment alone  Avill  enable  the  farmer  to  decide  as  to  their  value 
for  his  OAvn  grounds,  however  high  they  may  stand  else- 
where. When  of  a  fine  quality,  and  found  to  produce  well 
on  any  given  soils,  their  place  should  not  be  usurped  by 
others,  till  repeated  trials  have  shown  their  superiority,  either 
in  yield  or  character.  But  when  the  acclimated  grain  is  infe- 
rior, other  seed  from  remote  distances,  even  if  no  better  in 
quality,  may  properly  be  substituted  for  it,  as  a  decided 
benefit  has  been  found  to  follow  a  change. 

Wheat  and  nearly  all  seeds  are  found  to  be  more  produc 
tive,  when  taken  from  a  soil  inferior  to  the  one  intended  for 
sowing ;  and  it  is  claimed  that  such  as  havo  been  produced, 
either  in  a  warmer  or  colder  climate,  will  ma  :ure  earlier.  It 
is  not  essential  that  the  fullest,  heaviest  grain  be  sown. 
Sprengel  affirms,  that  seed  somewhat  shrunken,  is  more  cer« 
tain  to  give  a  good  yield  thau  the  choicest  seed  ;  and  numer- 
ous trials  would  seem  to  favor  this  conclusion.  The  grain 
designed  for  seed  should  be  well  ripened  before  harvesting. 
From  the  ever-varying  character  of  the  different  kinds  of 
seed,  their  superiority  at  one  time  and  on  one  locality,  and 
their  inferiority  at  other  times  and  in  other  situations,  it 
seems  almost  superfluous  to  give  a  particular  enumeration 
of  the  present  most  popular  kinds.  A  brief  mention  of  such 
only,  as  stand  high  in  public  favor  in  this  country,  with 
some  of  their  most  striking  peculiarities,  is  all  that  our  limits 
will  admit. 

The  Improved  Flint  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  fine 
wheat-growing  country  of  western  New  York,  where  it 
was  introduced  in  1822.  It  is  hardy,  and  withstands  the 
winters  remarkably  well.  A  striking  improvement  in  the 
strength  of  its  straw  has  been  observed,  which  at  first  in- 
clined to  lodge,  but  it  is  now  erect  and  firm  till  fully  ripened. 
The  heads  are  also  fuller  and  longer  than  when  first  intro- 
duced ;  thdM^erry  is  plump  and  Avhite,  yielding  a  large  pro- 
oortion  of  choice  flour  ;  and  it  is  retained  in  the  head  with 
greater  tenacity,  Avhich  is  a  decided  advantage  in  harvest- 
ing, ■w^here  threshing  machines  are  substituted   for  the   flail. 

The  Old  Genesee  Red  Chaff  is  a  bald,  white  wheat,  first 
cultivated  in  the  same  region,  in  1798  ;  and  for  a  long  time  it 
was  the  decided  favorite.  Since  1820,  however,  it  has  been 
ver^ubject  to  ru^  t  and  blast ;  but  when  circumstances  arp 


GRAIN   AND    ITS    3ULTIVATION.  137 

lavorable,  it  is  still  found  to  be  highly  productive.  In  other 
localities,  its  cultivation  may  be  attended  with  the  most  satis, 
factory  success. 

The  White  May  of  Virgi?iia  was  a  choice  variety,  and 
extensively  raised  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Chesapeake 
Bay,  in  1800,  but  is  now  nearly  extinct  there.  It  has  been 
cultivated  in  New  York  for  ten  years,  is  a  good  bearer  and 
very  heavy,  weighing  frequently  66  lbs.  per  bushel.  It 
ripens  early,  in  consequence  of  which,  it  escapes  rust. 

The  Wheatland  Red  is  a  new  variety,  discovered  and 
propagated  by  Gen.  Harmon,  of  Monroe  Co.,  N.  Y.,  by 
whom  it  Is  held  in  high  estimation.  It  produces  well  and 
ripens  early. 

The  Ke7itticky  White- Bearded,  Hutchinson  or  Canor- 
dian  Flint  is  very  popular  in  western  New  York,  where  it 
has  been  rapidly  disseminated  since  its  first  introduction, 
some  twelve  or  fifteen  years  since.  It  is  hardy,  a  good 
yielder,  with  a  short,  plump  berry,  weighing  64  lbs.  per 
bushel.  It  requires  thicker  sowing  (about  25  per  cent,  more 
seed)  than  the  improved  flint,  as  it  does  not  tiller  as  well, 
and  unlike  that,  it  shells  easily,  wasting  much  unless  cut 
quite  early. 

The  English  Velvet  Beard  or  Crate  Wheat  has  a  coarse 
straw,  large  heads,  a  good  berry  of  a  reddish  hue,  and  is  well 
suited  to  the  rich,  alluvial,  bottom  lands,  where  its  firm  straw 
prevents  its  lodging.  It  is  a  fair  yielder  and  tolerably  hardy; 
but  its  long  beard  is  a  great  objection  to  its  introduction  on 
such  lands  as  are  suited  to  the  finer  kinds. 

The  Yorkshire  or  E7iglish  Flint  or  Soules  Wheat  has 
been  recently  introduced,  and  is  similar  in  its  leading  features 
to  the  old  Genesee. 

The  White  Provence  is  a  new  and  favorite  variety,  but 
its  slender  stalk  frequently  subjects  it  to  lodging.  It  is  only 
suited  to  the  finest  calcareous  wheat  soils. 

The  Blue  Stent  has  been  raised  with  great  success  in 
Pennsylvania,  where  it  resisted  smut  and  rust  when  all  other 
kinds  in  the  vicmity,  ^vere  affected  by  it. 

The  Mediterranean  is  a  coarse  wheat  with  a  thick  skin, 
yielding  a  dark  floiu:.  It  resists  rust  and  the  fly,  is  a  good 
bearer,  and  may  be  profitably  grown  where  other  choice 
kinds  fail. 

The  Egyptian,  Smyrna,  B,eed,  Many-Spiked,  or  Wild 
Goose  Wheat  is  also  a  hardy  variety,  with  t  thick  straw, 
which  prevents  its  lodging. 


133  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

PRODUCTION  or  NEW  VARIETIES  OE  WHEAT. 

Besides  introducing  valuable  kinds  from  abroad,  and  the 
improvement  of  such  as  we  now  have  by  careful  cultivation, 
neAv  varieties  may  be  secured  by  hybridizing  or  crossing. 
This  is  done  by  impregnating  the  female  organs  of  the  floAvers 
on  one  plant,  by  the  pollen  from  the  male  organ  of  another. 
The  progeny  sometimes  differs  materially  from  both  parents, 
and  occasionally  partakes  of  the  leading  qualities  of  each. 
Among  those  thus  produced,  some  may  be  found  of  peculiar 
excellence,  and  worthy  of  supplanting  others,  whose  value  is 
declining.  The  effect  of  this  crossing,  is  striking  in  the  ear 
of  corn,  where  the  red  and  white,  the  blue  and  yellow  ker- 
nels are  seen  to  blend  in  singular  confusion  over  the  whole 
ear,  each  differing,  too,  in  size,  shape  and  general  qualities. 
Observation  will  sometimes  detect  a  new  variety  of  wheat 
in  the  field,  self-hybridized,  the  result  of  an  accidental  cross. 
If  this  has  superior  merit,  it  should  be  carefully  secured  and 
planted  in  a  bed  by  itself  for  future  seed. 

Propagation  may  be  extended  with  incredible  rapidity 
by  dividing  the  plant.  The  English  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions ffive  the  result  of  a  trial,  made  bv  plantina;  a  single 
grain  on  the  2d  of  June.  On  the  8th  of  August,  it  was  taken 
up  and  separated  into  18  parts,  and  each  planted  by  itself. 
These  were  subdivided  and  planted,  between  15th  of  Sep- 
tember and  1.5th  of  October,  and  again  the  following  spring. 
From  this  careful  attention,  in  a  fertile  soil,  500  plants  were 
obtained,  some  containing  100  stalks  bearing  heads  of  a 
large  size ;  and  the  total  produce  within  the  year,  was 
386,840  grains  from  the  single  one  planted. 

SPRING  WHEAT. 

This  requires  a  soil  similar  to  that  of  winter  grain,  but  it 
should  be  of  a  quick  and  kindly  character,  as  the  grain  has 
a  much  shorter  time  to  mature.  The  ground  must  be  well 
pulverized  and  fertile.  The  best  crops  are  raised  on  land 
that  has  been  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  sown  ^vithout  addi- 
tional plowing,  taking  care  to  harrow  in  thoroughly.  When 
planted  early,  the  Avheat  rarely  suffers  from  the  fly,  as  it  at- 
tains a  size  and  vigor  that  Avithstands  any  injury  from  the 
fly  when  it  appears.  In  certain  locaUties,  where  the  fly 
abounds  and  the  M'heat  has  not  been  early  sown,  it  is  found 
necessary  to  keep  back  the  young  plants,  till  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  fly.  Large  crops  have  been  obtained  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  wlier  sowi'.  a?  late  as  the  20th  May. 


ORAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  139 


VAEIETIES. 

The  Black  Sea  Wheat  is  oue  of  the  most  popular  kind'- 
at  present  cultivated.  Of  this  there  are  two  varieties,  the 
red  and  the  white  chaff,  both  of  which  are  bearded.  The 
former  is  generally  preferred.  This  wheat  has  yielded  very 
profitable  crops.  The  flour  from  this,  like  that  from  the 
Mediterranean  wheat,  is  of  a  dark  color. 

The  Siberian  is  an  excellent  wheat,  and  has  been  much 
raised  in  this  country.  It  produces  a  full,  fine  grain,  is  hardy 
and  a  good  bearer.  The  Italian  has  also  been  extensively 
cultivated,  and  held  in  high  estimation ;  but  it  is  now  generally 
giving  place  to  the  preceding,  where  both  have  been  tried. 

There  are  some  other  varieties  which  bear  well  and  are 
tolerably  hardy.  Excellent  spring  grahi  has  been  produced, 
by  early  sowing  from  choice  winter  Avheat,  which  has  re- 
tained most  of  the  characteristics  of  the  original,  under  its 
new  summer  culture.  In  large  sections  of  this  country, 
wheat  has  been  seriously  injured  by  winter-killing  and  other 
casualties  ;  and  wherever  tliese  prevail,  and  the  soil  is  suited 
to  it,  .spring  or  summer  wheat  may  be  advantageously  intro- 
duced. A  proper  attention  to  the  selection  of  seed  and  the 
preparation  of  the  soil,  will  generally  insure  a  profitable  re- 
turn. If  the  market  value  of  this  wheat  is  not  as  high  as 
the  winter  grain,  it  may  at  least  afford  all  that  the  farmei 
and  his  laborers  require  as  food ;  and  he  will  generally  find, 
if  not  in  a  wheat-growing  region,  that  he  can  dispose  of  his 
surplus  crop  among  his  neighbors  before  the  next  harvest 
comes  round,  and  at  satisfactory  prices. 

RYE  (Secale  seroale). 

This  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  northeastern  and 
middle  Atlantic  States.  It  is  grown  on  the  light  lands  of 
Ohio  and  Michigan,  and  as  the  supporting  elements  of  wheat 
become  exhausted  in  the  soil  of  the  rich  agricultural  States 
of  the  West,  rye  will  take  its  place  in  a  great  measure  on 
their  lighter  soils.  Most  of  the  eastern  States  produced 
wheat  when  first  subjected  to  culti\'ation  ;  but  where  lime 
did  not  exist  in  the  soil,  the  Avheat  crop  soon  failed,  and  it 
gradually  receded  from  the  Atlantic  border,  except  in  marly 
or  calcareous  soils,  rye  almost  universally  succeeding  it. 
But  the  liberal  use  of  lime,  connected  with  an  intelligent  ap- 
plication of  the  agricultural  impi-ovements  of  the  present 
day,  are  regaining  for  wheat,  much  of  its  ancient  territory. 
Rye  resembles  wheat  in  its  bread-making  properties,  and 


140  AMERICAN    AGRICULTCRE. 

for  this  purpose  it  is  only  second  to  wheat,  in  those  countries 
where  it  is  cultivated.  There  is  a  peculiar  aroma  connected 
with  the  husk  of  the  iirain,  which  is  not  found  in  the  finely- 
bolted  flour.  The  grain  Avhen  ground  and  unbolted,  is  much 
used  in  the  New  England  States,  for  mixing  into  loaves  wiih 
scalded  Indian  meal  ;  it  is  then  baked  for  a  long  time,  and  is 
known  as  rye-and-Indian  or  hroicn  bread.  This  possesses 
a  sweetness  and  flavor  peculiar  to  itself,  which  is  doubtless 
owing  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  quality  above  mentioned. 
Von  Thaer  says  "  this  substance  appears  »o  facilitate  diges- 
tion, and  has  a  singularly  strengthening,  refreshing  and 
beneficial  effect  on  the  animal  frame."  E-ye  is  more 
hardy  than  wheat,  and  is  a  substitute  for  it  on  those 
soils  which  will  not  grow  the  latter  grain  with  certainty 
and  profit. 

Soil  and  C ultivation. — Neither  strong  clay  nor  calcareous 
iands  are  well  suited  to  it.  A  rich  sandy  ioam  is  the  natural 
soil  for  rye,  though  it  grows  freely  on  light  sands  and 
gravels,  which  refuse  to  produce  either  wheat,  barley,  or  oats. 
Loamy  soils  that  are  too  rich  for  Avheat,  and  on  which  it 
almost  invariably  lodges,  will  frequently  raise  an  excellent 
crop  of  rye,  its  stronger  stem  enabling  it  to  sustain  itse  ' 
under  the  luxuriant  growth. 

The  preparation  of  the  Soil  for  Rye,  is  similar  to  tha 
for  "vvheat;  and  it  may  be  advantageously  sown  upon  a 
rich  old  turf  or  clover  ley,  or  after  corn  or  roots  where  the 
land  has  been  well  manured,  and  thoroughly  cleansed  from 
weeds.  There  is  not  an  equal  necessity  for  using  a  brine- 
steep  for  rye  as  for  wheat,  yet  if  allowed  to  remain  a  iew  hours 
in  a  weak  solution  of  saltpetre  or  some  of  the  other  salts,  it 
promotes  speedy  germination  and  subsequent  growth. 

C ultivation. — There  is  but  one  species  of  rye  ;  but  to  this 
cultivation  has  given  two  loading  varieties,  the  spring  and 
winter.  Like  wheal,  they  are  easily  transformed  into  each 
other,  by  sowing  the  winter  continually  later  through  suc- 
cessive generations,  to  change  it  into  spring  rye,  and  the 
opposite  course  will  ensure  its  re-conversion  into  winter 
grain.  The  last  should  be  sown  from  the  20th  of  August  to 
the  20th  of  September,  the  earliest  requiring  less  seed,  as  it 
has  a  longer  time  to  tiller  and  fill  up  the  ground.  Five  pecks 
is  the  usual  quantity  sown,  but  it  varies  from  one  to  two 
bushels  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  richest  lands 
demanding  most. 

It  is  a  practice  among  many  farmers,  to  sow  rye  on  light 
lands,  among  their  standing  corn,  hoeing  it  in,  and  leaving 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULT1\  iTION.  141 

the  grovrnd  as  level  as  possible.  On  such  lands,  this  is 
attended  with  several  advantages ;  as  it  gives  the  grain 
an  early  start,  anc  a  moist,  sheltered  position,  at  a  time 
when  drought  and  a  hot  sun  would  check  or  prevent  vegeta- 
tion. As  soon  as  the  corn  is  matured,  it  is  cut  up  by  the 
roots  and  placed  in  compact  shocks,  or  removed  to  one  side 
of  the  field,  when  the  rye  is  thoroughly  rolled.  "When  sown 
on  a  fresh  plowed  field,  it  should  be  harrowed  in  before  roll- 
ing. 

Great  success  has  attended  the  turning  in  of  green  crops, 
and  following  the  fresh  plowing  with  immediate  sowing  of 
the  seed.  This  brings  it  forward  at  once.  No  after  cultiva- 
tion is  needed,  except  harrowing  in  the  spring,  and  again  roll- 
ing, if  the  land  is  light,  both  of  which  are  beneficial ;  for  though 
some  of  the  stools  may  be  thus  destroyed,  the  w'orking  of 
the  gromid  assists  the  remaining  plants,  so  as  to  leave  a  great 
advantage  in  favor  of  the  practice.  A  friend  of  the  writei 
had  occasion  to  plow  some  land  in  the  spring,  Avhich  joined 
a  field  of  rye  belonging  to  a  neighbor.  The  owner  claim- 
ed damages  for  supposed  injury  by  the  team  and  plow,  which 
it  was  agreed  should  be  assessed,  on  examination  after  har- 
vesting, when  it  appeared  that  the  damaged  part  was  the 
best  of  the  whole  field.  An  honest  English  yeoman  receiv- 
ed several  pounds  from  a  liberal  squire,  for  alleged  injury  to 
his  ycung  grain,  from  the  trampling  of  horses  and  hounds  in 
a  fox  chase  ;  but  at  harvest,  he  found  the  crop  so  much  benefit- 
ted by  the  operation,  that  he  voluntarily  returned  the  money. 
If  the  rye  is  luxuriant,  it  maybe  fed  both  in  the  fall  and 
spring.  Early  cutting,  as  in  wheat,  produces  more  weight, 
larger  measure  and  whiter  flour.  But  whatever  is  intended 
for  seed,  must  be  allowed  to  ripen  fully  on  the  ground. 

Southern  Rije  differs  materially  in  its  manner  of  groAvth. 
from  that  cultivated  in  the  North.  I  believe,  however,  this 
difference  arises  exclusively  from  dissimilarity  of  climate  , 
and  that,  like  the  sectional  sub-varieties  of  corn  or  maize,  a 
few  years'  successive  growth  in  a  peculiar  latitude,  Avill  give 
to  either  sprnes,  the  same  characteristics  as  the  longer  accli- 
mated grain.  It  tillers  remarkably,  and  grows  with  great 
luxuriance  during  fall  and  a  part  of  winter,  affording  excel- 
lent forage  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  animals  When  the 
animals  are  taken  off  the  following  spring,  the  grain  runs  up 
to  seed,  yielding  from  10  to  15  bushels  of  ripened  grain  to 
the  acre.  I  saw  a  beautiful  field  of  this,  late  in  November, 
adjoining  the  mansion  of  Col.  Wade  Hampton,  of  South 
Carolina,  which  was  devoted  to  the  pets  of  the  stables  and 


142 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


yards ;  and  especially  to  the  numerous  vari  eties  of  fowls 
(aquatic  and  others),  that  seemed  to  revel  on  their  fresh  green 
pastures,  in  the  absence  of  other  herbage. 

Diseases. — Rye  is  subject  to  fewer  casualties  than  wheat. 
Ergot  or  cockspur  frequently  affects  it.  This  fungus  is  dis- 
covered, not  only  on  rye,  but  on  other  plants  of  the  order 
gramince.  Several  of  these  elongated,  curved  and  brownish 
spurs  appear  on  a  single  head,  and  they  are  most  frequent  in 
hot,  wet  seasons.  They  are  poisonous  to  both  man  and  beast ; 
and  when  eaten  freely,  they  have  generated  fatal  epidemics  in 
the  community,  and  emaciation,  debility,  and  in  some  cases 
death,  to  animals  consuming  it.  The  sloiaghing  of  the  hoofs 
and  horns  of  cattle,  has  been  attributed  to  ergot  in  their  grass 
and  grain.  Rust  like  that  which  affects  the  wheat  crop, 
and  owing  probably  to  the  same  causes,  attacks  rye.  When 
this  happens,  it  should  be  cut  and  harvested  without  delay. 

Rye  for  Soiling  is  sometimes  sown  by  those  who  wish 
forage  late  in  autumn  and  early  in  spring.  For  this  purpose, 
it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  bushels  per 
acre.  If  on  a  fertile  soil  and  not  too  closely  pastured,  it  will 
bear  a  good  crop  of  grain  ;  and  in  some  cases  when  too  rank, 
early  feeding  will  strengthen  the  stalk  and  increase  the  grain 

BARLEY  (Hordeum,  Fig.  33). 

Barley  is  a  grain  of  extensive  cultivation  and 
great  value.  Like  wheat  and  rye,  it  is  both  a 
winter  and  spring  grain,  though  in  this  coun- 
try, it  is  alruost  universally  sown  in  the  spring. 
There  are  six  varieties,  differing  in  no  essential 
points,  and  all  originating  from  the  same 
source.  Loudon  says,  in  choosing  for  seed, 
"  the  best  is  that  which  is  free  from  blackness 
at  the  tail,  and  is  of  a  pale,  lively  yellow,  in- 
termixed with  a  bright,  whitish  cast ;  and  if  the 
rind  be  a  little  shrivelled,  so  much  the  better, 
as  it  indicates  thin  skin.  The  husk  of  thick- 
rinded  barley  is  too  stiff  to  shrink,  and  will  lie 
smooth  and  hollow,  even  when  the  flour  is 
shrunk  "vvithin.  The  necessity  of  a  change  of 
seed  from  time  to  time,  for  that  grj)wn  in  a  dif- 
ferent soil,  is  in  no  instance  more  evident  than 
in  this  grain,  which  otherwise  becomes  cc arse: 
every  successive  year.  But  in  this,  as  in  all  othei 
grain,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  thai 
the  ieed  is  full  bodied." 


GBAIN    AND    ITS       ULTIVATION.  143 

The  principal  varieties  are  the  two  and  six  rmved;  the 
last  being  preferred  for  hardiness  and  productiveness  in  En- 
rope.  The  first  is  generally  cultivated  in  this  country,  from  its 
superior  fullness  and  freedom  from  smut.  There  are  nume- 
rous sub-varieties,  such  as  the  Hudson's  Bay,  which  ripens 
very  early  and  bears  abundantly  ;  the  Chevalier  and  Provi- 
dence, both  accidental,  of  which  a  single  stalk  was  first  dis- 
covered among  others  of  the  ordinary  kinds,  and  proving  su- 
perior and  of  luxuriant  growth,  they  were  widely  propagated  : 
X\ie  Peruvian,  EgyjJtian,  2indoih.ex?'.  New  varieties  may 
be  produced  by  crossing,  as  with  Avheat. 

Soil. — Barley  requires  a  lighter  soil  than  will  grow  good 
wheat,  and  a  heavier  than  will  bear  tolerable  rye ;  but 
in  all  cases  it  must  be  one  that  is  well  drained.  A  mellow 
rich  loam,  ranging  between  light  sand  O-  gravel,  and  heavy 
clay  is  best  ^nited  to  it. 

Cultivation. — It  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
siiriiciently  dry  in  spring,  on  a  grass  or  a  clover  ley  turned 
over  the  preceding  fall  ;  or  it  may  follow  a  well-manured  and 
cleanly-hoed  crop.  If  sown  on  a  sod,  it  should  be  lightly 
plowed  in,  but  not  so  deep  as  to  disturb  the  sod,  and  after- 
tvards  harrowed  or  rolled.  The  soil  must  always  be  well  pul- 
ferized.  From  1|  to  2^  bushels  per  acre  is  the  usual  allow- 
ance of  seed,  poor  and  mellow  soils  and  early  sown,  requiring 
the  least.  Barley  ought  never  to  follow  the  other  white  grains, 
nor  should  they  succeed  each  other,  unless  upon  very  rich 
soil.  No  farmer  can  long  depart  from  this  rule,  without  seri- 
ous detriment  to  his  soil  and  crops.  Barnyard  manures  must 
never  be  api>lied  directly  to  this  grain,  unless  it  be  a  lio-ht 
dressing  of  compost  on  indifferent  soils ;  or  in  moderate 
quantity  after  the  plants  have  commenced  growing  insprino". 
When  the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  rolling  will  be 
of  service  if  the  ground  is  dry  and  not  compact.  This  opera- 
tion gives  support  to  the  roots,  destroys  insects  multiplies 
seed-stalks,  and  increases  their  vigor. 

Destroying  Weeds  in  Grain. — When  grain  is  infested  with 
cockle,  wild  mustard  or  other  weeds,  they  should  be  extirpat- 
ed by  hand  before  they  are  fairly  in  blossom.  If  neglected 
till  sometime  after  this,  the  seed  is  so  well  matured  as  to 
ripen  after  pulling,  and  if  then  thrown  upjn  the  ground, 
they  Avill  defeat  the  effort  for  their  removal.  When  too  lux- 
jriant,  barley  like  rye,  may  be  fed  off  for  a  few  days,  but  not 
too  closely. 

The  Harvesting  cf  barley  must    be    seasonably    done 


144 


AMERICAN    AGRICU:  lURE 


More  caution  is  requisite  in  cutting  it  at  the  propc:  time, 
than  is  necessarjf  to  observe  with  any  other  grain  ;  for  if  cut 
too  late,  its  extreme  liability  to  shell  will  cause  much  waste, 
and  it  will  shrivel,  if  cut  before  it  is  fully  matured.  It  may 
be  stacked  like  wheat. 

The  uses  of  Barley  are  various  and  important.  In  Eu- 
rope, it  forms  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  food  of  the  in- 
habitants. The  grain  yields  from  80  to  86  per  cent,  of  flour, 
which,  however,  contains  but  six  per  cent,  of  gluten ;  seven 
per  cent,  being  saccharine  matter,  and  79,  mucilage  or  starch. 
It  is  inferior  in  n  'trimeut  to  ■wheat  and  rye,  but  superior  to 
oats.  In  this  country,  it  is  principall}'^  used  for  malting  and 
brewing,  and  in  some  cases  for  distilling.  When  ground,  it 
is  more  generally  appropriated  to  fattening  swine,  though 
sometimes  used  for  other  stock. 

THE    OAT  (Avena  sativa,  Fig.  34). 

This  grain  is  cultivated  through- 
out a  larger  range  of  latitude,  and 
on  a  greater  variety  of  soil  than 
any  cereal.  It  \v\\\  grow  on  rich 
or  poor,  and  on  dry  or  moist  soils  ; 
on  the  heaviest  clays  and  the  light- 
est sands ;  and  it  will  generally  pay 
as  well  on  rich  lands  as  any  other 
crop.  The  average  yield  on  good 
soils,  is  from  30  to  40  bushels  per 
acre,  and  on  the  richest,  when 
well  cultivated,  it  has  exceeded 
120  bushels.  It  is  exposed  to 
fewer  injuries  than  other  grain, 
being  seldom  affected  by  rust, 
smut  or  insects.  The  wire  worm 
is  most  destructive  to  it,  espe- 
cially when  sown  on  fresh  sod. 
The  most  effectual  mode  of  extir- 
pating these  and  other  troublesome 
insects,  is  to  turn  the  sod  over,  late 
in  the  fall,  iust  before  the  severe 
winter  frosts.  They  thus  become 
p,(;  34  chilled,  and   incapable  of  seeking 

a  safe  retreat  from  their  fatal  effects.  If  not  plowed  at  that 
time,  it  should  be  done  immediately  before  sowing  in  spring, 
when  by  turning  them  into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  they 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  145 

cannot  find  their  way  to  the  surface  in  time  to  injure  the 
plant  seriously,  before  it  gets  beyond  the  reach  of  their 
attacks. 

Varieties. — Of  these,  Loudon  mentions  nine  as  being 
well  defined  and  entirely  distinct,  besides  which  there  are 
many  local  or  recent  sub-varieties.     He  says, 

"  The  White  or  Common  oat  is  in  most  general  cultiva- 
tion in  England  and  Scotland,  and  is  known  by  its  white 
husk  and  kernel. 

The  Black  oat,  known  by  its  black  husk  and  cultivated 
on  poor  soils  in  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland. 

The  Red  oat,  known  by  its  brownish  red  husk,  thinner 
and  more  flexible  stem  and  firmly-attached  grains.  It  is 
early,  sufi'ers  little  from  winds,  meals  well,  and  suits  windy 
situations  and  a  late  climate. 

The  Poland  oat,  known  by  its  thick  -white  husk,  awnless 
chaff,  solitary  grains,  short  white  kernel,  and  short  stiff  straw. 
It  requires  a  dry  warm  soil,  but  is  very  prolific. 

The  Black  Poland  oat  is  one  of  the  best  varieties ;  it 
sometimes  weighs  50  lbs.  to  the  bushel. 

The  Friezland  or  Dutch  oat  has  plump  thin-skinned 
white  grains  mostly  double,  and  the  large  ones  sometimes 
awned.  It  has  longer  straw  than  the  Poland,  but  in  other 
respects  resembles  it. 

The  Potato  oat  has  large,  plump,  rather  thick-skinned, 
white  grains,  double  and  treble,  with  longer  straw  than 
either  of  the  two  last.  It  is  now  almost  the  only  kind 
raised  in  the  north  of  England  and  south  of  Scotland,  and 
brings  a  higher  price   in  London  than  any  other  variety. 

The  Georgian  oat  is  a  large-grained,  remarkably  profita- 
ble variety  and  on  rich  soil,  in  good  tilth,  has  produced  more 
than  any  other  variety. 

The  Siberian  or  Tartarian,  is  by  some  conceded  a  distinct 
species.  The  grains  are  black  or  brown,  thin  and  small,  and 
turned  mostly  to  one  side  of  the  panicle,  and  the  straw  is 
corjrse  and  reedy.  It  is  little  cultivated  in  England,  but  is 
found  very  suitable  for  poor  soils  and  exposed  situations. 

The  Winter  oat  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per 
acre  in  October,  the  plants  are  luxuriant  and  tiller  well,  and 
afibrd  good  winter  and  spring  pasture  for  ewes  and  lambs, 
and  when  these  are  shut  out,  it  affords  an  ample  crop  of 
grain  in  August." 

The  Imperial  oat  is  the  heaviest  raised  in  the  United 
States,  and  by  many  is  preferred  tc  all  others.     It  is  a  clean, 

7 


i 


146  AHEB.ICAN    AGRICULTTJKE. 

bright,  plump,  heavy  grain,  yielding  a  large  j/roportion  of 
flour  and  nutritive  matter.  It  is  hardy  and  prolific  in  the 
northern  and  middle  States. 

The  Hopetown  oat  originated  from  a  single  stalk,  first 
discovered  in  1S24,  by  Mr.  Sheiiff,  in  a  field  of  potato  oats. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  exceeding  height,  and  superior  pro- 
duce when  sown  on  rich  soUs. 

The  Dyock  oat  is  a  recent  sub-variety  of  the  Potato  oat, 
and  it  is  claimed  for  it,  that  it  exceeds  the  last  in  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  yielded  per  acre,  and  also  in  the  weight  of 
the  grain  and  the  quantity  of  meai. 

The  Skinless  oats,  greatly  commended  in  Ireland,  have 
been  tried  in  this  country  ^vithout  much  success.  They 
have  shown  a  tendency  to  degenerate  rapidly,  the  necessary 
eflfect  of  previous  highly-artificial  cultivation. 

There  are  many  other  varieties  which  have  a  partial  or 
local  popularity.  From  the  readiness  with  which  new  kinds 
are  produced,  careful  attention  and  observation  on  the  part 
of  the  farmer,  will  enable  him  to  detect  from  time  to  time, 
such  as  may  have  a  decided  value  over  others  for  particular 
localities.  A  superior  kind  was  discovered  in  a  field  of  com- 
mon oats  in  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  some  years  since,  and 
*tom  the  produce  of  one  stool,  it  became  \videly  disseminated, 
and  has  uniformly  proved  both  hardy  and  prolific. 

The  variet}'  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States  is  the  Com- 
mo?i  Wliiteoat,  which  is  hardv  and  a  ffood  bearer,  weisrhing 
from  30  to  34  lbs.  per  bushel.  The  Black  oat  is  preferred  in 
•western  New  York,  aud  some  other  sections  of  the  country. 
Repeated  trials  have  been  made  with  the  Potato  oat,  a  heavy 
grain,  weighing  from  3-5  to  45  lbs  per  bushel,  but  its  merits 
have  not  hitherto  proved  conspicuous,  enough  to  justify  its 
usurpiuff  the  place  of  the  older  and  long-tried  varieties. 

The  Egyptian  oat  is  much  cultivated  south  of  Tennessee, 
and  is  said  to  be  the  onl)^  oat  that  will  mature  with  certainty 
in  the  southern  States.  It  is  a  grain  of  medium  size,  but 
plump  and  hea\y  ;  sound,  hardy  and  moderately  prolific. 
It  is  sown  in  autumn,  and  after  yielding  winter  and  sprng 
pastutage,  gives  from  10  to  20  bushels  of  ripened  grain  to 
an  acre. 

Cultivation. — In  this  country,  oavS  are  sov.ti  at  the  rate 
of  two  to  four  bushels  per  acre,  during  all  the  spring  months, 
and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  in  June.  The  earliest  sown 
are  usually  the  heaviest  and  n.ost  productive.  They  may 
occupy  a  turf,  or  follow  any  of  tie  well-man"  xred,  hoed  crops. 


GRAIN    AND    n-S    CULTIVATION.  1 47 

as  mentioned  in  the  preceding  grains.  No  appaitn^  advan- 
tage has  been  derived  from  steeps  for  the  prevention  of  smut 
as  in  wheat,  the  impervious  husk  of  the  oat,  apparently 
arresting  the  hquid,  and  preventing  its  penetration  to  tho 
kernol.  Sowing  salt  broadcast  over  the  land,  at  the  rate  of 
two  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  has  been  found  of  use  to  tho 
crop,  both  in  furnishing  it  with  a  necessary  manure  and  by 
kilhng  insects.  The  seed  should  be  well  harrowed  in  and 
rolled,  and  no  after  attention  is  required,  except  to  destroy 
the  prominent  weeds. 

Harvesting. — Oats  frequently  ripen  unevenly,  and  if  there 
is  a  large  proportion  of  such  as  are  backward,  the  proper 
time  for  cutting  \vill  be,  as  soon  as  the  grain  in  the  latest, 
may  be  rubbed  out  of  the  straw  by  hand.  The  oat  is  suffi- 
ciently matured  for  harvesting  after  it  has  passed  the  milk 
state,  and  is  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger. 
The  lower  part  of  the  stalk  will  then  have  assumed  a  yel- 
low color,  and  ceases  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil.  If 
cut  at  this  time,  the  straw  is  better  for  fodder  and  other  uses  , 
the  grain  is  fuller ;  the  husk  lighter  ;  and  the  loss  from 
shelling,  which  is  frequently  a  great  item  when  left  too  late, 
is  avoided.  Oats,  when  very  tall,  are  most  profitably  cut 
with  the  sickle,  and  when  lodged,  Avith  the  scythe  ;  but 
when  erect  and  of  medium  height,  with  the  cradle,  or  an  ap- 
proved reaping  machine,  which  is  by  far  the  most  speedy 
and  economical ;  and  this  leaves  them  in  a  suitable  position 
for  binding  into  sheaves.  They  may  be  stacked  like  wheat. 
The  uses  of  oats  are  various,  and  differ  materially  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  Scotland,  Ireland  and  many  other 
countries,  oat  meal  is  much  used  as  human  food;  and  for 
this,  the  Imperial  oat  or  some  one  of  the  heavy  kinds  is  pre- 
ferred, as  they  aflbrd  a  larger  pre  portion  of  meal  and  less  of 
husk.  Scotland  draws  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  support 
for  her  entire  laboring  population,  from  this  meal.  It  is 
formed  into  small  thin  cakes  and  eaten  with  milk,  butter  or 
molasses,  or  it  is  mixed  with  Avater  or  milk  and  made  into  a 
kind  of  pudding,  under  the  name  of  stirabout,  a  favorite 
dish,  which  is  said  to  be  palatable  to  those  accustomed  to  it. 
They  are  but  little  used  for  human  food  in  this  country, 
and  only  by  emigrants,  Avho  bring  their  early  habits  with 
them.  They  are  prepared  by  kiln-drying  and  hulling,  then 
grinding  and  bolting,  when  required  to  i'eparate  the  flour. 
The  meal  -s  scalded  before  using,  and  mixed  with  about  half 
its  weight  of  wheat  flour,  when  made  into  bread.  It  is  sold 
by  the  apothecaries  to  invalids,  iix  whom  it  is  valuable,  from 


(48 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


its  light,  digestible  character.  It  is  also  stured  into  water, 
making  an  excellent  beverage  for  laborers  in  hot  weather. 
The  principal  nse  of  oats  in  the  United  States,  is  as  food 
for  working  animals,  for  which  they  are  unrivalled.  Oafs 
are  sometimes  used  when  ground  for  fattening  cattle,  sheep 
and  swine;  b.:t  for  this  puipose.they  are  surpassed  by  corn 
barley,  peas  or  boiled  potatoes.  They  are  an  excellent  fod 
der  for  stock  sheep,  and  for  them,  are  mosi  economically  fed 
in  the  straw.  All  stock  will  do  well  upon  them,  when  har- 
vested early,  and  cut  previous  to  feeding,  in  a  suitable  cut- 
ting box. 

Anali/sis. — Davy  found  in  1,000  parts  of  Scotch  oats,  743 
of  soluble  or  nutritiv-e  matter,  containing  641  of  mucilage 
or  starch,  15  saccharine  matter,  and  87  gluten  or  albumen. 
Those  of  England,  gave  59  of  starch,  six  of  gluten,  two  of 
saccharine  matter,  and  33  of  husk  in  100  parts. 

INDIAN  CORN,  (Zea  maize). 

This  next  to  the  grasses,  is  by  far 
the  most  important  crop  of  the 
United  States.  The  quantity  this 
country  is  capable  of  raising,  Avould 
fail  to  command  belief,  even  if  fairly 
stated.  Its  capacity  \vill  never  be 
fully  known,  till  a  demand  from 
abroad  shall  stimulate  production 
much  beyond  u'hat  it  has  ever  per- 
manently realized  heretofore.  The 
census  return  for  1840,  gave  387,- 
000,000  bushels  ;  and  for  1843,  the 
estimate  of  the  whole  product  of 
Indian  corn  in  this  country, was  over 
400,000,000  bushels.  The  effect 
of  this  immense  production  of  a  sta- 
ple article,  is  felt  in  every  depart- 
ment of  our  agriculture ;  and  is 
conclusively  shown  by  the  Ioav  pri- 
ces of  beef,  pork,  mutton,  human 
food,  whiskey  and  high  wines,  to  all  of  which,  corn  is  made 
largely  to  contribute.  Nearly  all  the  beef  and  pork  of  the 
vast  and  fertile  West,  and  much  m  the  North  and  South  is 
made  from  it. 

Corn  seems  to  have  been  created  for  this  western  hemis- 
phere.    It  is  raise.d  ir.  boundless  luxurinnce,  from  the  frozen 


ss^^=- 


Fig.  37. 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  149 

regions  of  Canada,  almosi  lo  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  It 
riots  in  the  fierce  blaze  a'^  our  cloudless  western  sun,  and  it 
is  here  that  it  attains  the  highest  perfection.  Its  most  pro- 
lific area  on  this  continent,  lies  between  42°  North,  and 
SB''  South  latitude,  deducting  a  limited  portion  of  the  equa 
torial  regions.  Close  attention  in  its  cultivation  is  necessary, 
when  receding  from  these  limits  towards  the  poles,  on  ac 
count  of  a  deficiency  of  sun  for  ripening  it.  In  such  locali- 
ties, the  smaller  and  earlier  kinds  should  be  planted  on  a 
warm  soil,  so  as  to  mature  before,  the  first  frosts. 

Varieties. — There  is  no  one  of  the  cereal  grains  or  grasses, 
which  manifests  itself  under  such  multiplied  forms  as  maize. 
From  the  little  shrubby  stalk  that  grows  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior,  to  the  palmetto-lU  f"  corn  of  the  Mexican  val- 
leys ;  and  from  the  tiny  ears  ana  flattened,  oJosely  clinging 
grains  of  the  former,  the  brilliant  rounded  little  pearl,  or  the 
thickly-wedged  rice  corn,  to  the  magnificently  elongated, 
swelling  ear  of  the  Kentucky,  \vith  its  deeply-indented 
gourd-seed,  it  is  developed  in  every  grade  of  sub-variety. 
The  kernels  are  long,  round  or  flat,  or  shriveled  like  the 
sweet  ;  and  their  color  is  white,  yellow,  blue,  red  or  striated ; 
yet  each  contains  the  same  principles  of  nutriment,  combined 
in  somewhat  difiereut  proportions,  and  contributes  for  equal 
weights,  nearly  in  the  same  ratio,  to  the  support  of  man  and 
the  lower  orders  of  the  animal  creation. 

The  analysis  of  corn  as  given  by  Dr.  Dana,  is  in  100  parts, 
of  flesh-forming  principles,  (gluten  and  albumen)  12.60  ;  fat 
forming,  (gum,  sugar,  starch,  oil,  woody  fibre,)  77.09  ;  salts, 
1.31  ;  water  9.  The  yellow  contains  more  oil  or  fatty  mat- 
ter than  the  \vhite,  and  therefore  yields  a  stronger  or  richer, 
food.  This  quality  gives  greater  intensity  to  the  peculiari- 
ties of  flavor ;  and  by  those  not  accustomed  to  its  use,  it  is 
not  relished  so  well  as  the  white.  This  is  shown  by  the 
preference  given  to  the  latter  in  England  and  Ireland,  where 
it  has  been  recently  introduced  as  a  staple  article  of  food. 
The  large  proportion  of  oil  in  this  grain,  increases  its  tend- 
ency to  rancidity,  Avhen  exposed  to  a  hot  and  moist  climate,  un- 
less previously  prepared  to  resist  this  influence  by  kiln-drying. 

Besides  the  kinds  in  general  cultivation  in  this  country, 
varieties  have  been  occasionally  introduced  from  abroad,  of 
a  character  so  diff"erent,  as  almost  to  entitle  them  to  the  dis- 
tinction of  independent  species.  Such  are  the  Chinese  tree 
mm,  bearing  its  slender  ears  at  the  extremiti.-s  of  several 
expanded  branches  ;  th(  Egyptian,  witl;its  iiJ^'i^jt-hke  head  ; 


160  AMERICAN    AGRICTTLTURB. 

the  Oregon,  with  its  separate  husk  or  envelope  fcr  every  dis- 
tinct kernel.  But  if  we  narrowly  watch  the  vagaries  of 
nature,  ^ve  shall  detect  deviations  from  the  ordinary  stand- 
ards of  our  domesticated  varieties,  ^vhich  approximate  so 
closely  to  the  most  fanciful  of  the  exotics,  that  we  are  com- 
pelled to  believe,  that  all  those  which  have  hitherto  come 
\vithin  our  notice,  originated  from  one  common  head  ;  and 
that  the  peculiarities  of  every  description,  are  OAving  to  the 
difference  of  soil,  climate  and  culture,  and  the  carefully- 
cherished  eccentricities  of  nature,  aided  by  a  skillful  science 
or  well  practiced  art.  It  is  needless  to  particularize  the  many 
popular  kinds  of  corn  under  successful  cultivation  in  thiJs 
country.  They  are  found  to  vary  with  almost  every  degree 
of  latitude  and  longitude  ;  and  there  are  not  unfrequently, 
nmnerous  kinds  held  in  deservedly  high  estiination  within 
a  single  district.  From  these,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
selecting  such  as  will  best  repay  the  farmer's  attention. 

The  Soil  for  Corn  must  be  dry,  rich  and  well-pulverized. 
Neither  strong  clay  or  poor  wet  lands  will  jield  good  crops 
of  corn.  Land  can  scarcely  be  too  rich  for  it ;  and  the 
fresher  and  less  fermented  the  manure  a^jplied  to  it,  unless 
on  liffht,  sandy  soils,  'he  better  it  will  be  for  the  crop.  A 
great  error  is  committed  in  raising  corn,  as  with  most  of  our 
tillage  crops,  from  not  having  the  soil  sufficiently  enriched ; 
though  this  error  is  diminished  in  the  case  of  such  as  will 
not  bear  an  excess  of  manure.  Corn  is  a  gross  feeder,  and 
necessarily  ranges  over  a  great  space  in  search  of  food.  It 
has  a  large  amount  of  stalk,  leaves  and  grain  to  provide  for 
in  a  few  weeks,  and  its  increase  vvill  be  commensurate  with 
the  supply  of  food. 

A  clover  ley  or  rich  grass  sod  is  an  excellent  preparation 
for  corn,  with  the  addition  of  manure  when  required.  But 
the  manure  should  always  be  scattered  broadcast,  plowed 
and  well  harrowed  in.  The  roots  will  be  certain  to  find  it, 
and  in  consequence  of  its  general  diffusion  and  consequent 
gradual  absorption  by  the  crop,  the  development  of  the  ear 
and  grain  will  correspond  with  that  of  the  stalk  and  leaves. 
When  manured  in  the  hill  on  poor  soil,  it  comes  forward 
rapidly,  and  this  induces  an  extension  of  the  roots  and  foliage, 
entirely  disproportioned  to  the  elements  contained  in  the 
eol' ;  and  finding  a  support  wholly  inadequate  to  a  corres- 
ponding maturity,  the  crop  is  limited  to  the  overgrown  stalks 
and  leaves  and  a  small  proportion  of  grain. 

The  Selection  of  Seed  should  be  made  with  the  utmost 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  \5\ 

care,  not  only  from  the  best  varieties,  but  the  best  seed  of 
the  particular  kind  desired.  Some  of  the  choicest  have 
been  brought  to  their  present  perfection,  by  selecting  only 
the  earliest  and  largest  ears  from  the  most  prolific  stalks. 
This  ought  always  to  be  done  before  the  corn  is  gathered  in 
the  field,  where  there  is  an  opportunity  for  comparison. 

Hyhridizmg  Corn,  like  that  of  other  grain,  is  easily  ac- 
complished, and  its  results  are  marked  and  frequently  bene- 
ficial. The  probable  identity  in  origin  of  all  the  varieties, 
is  evinced  by  the  rapid  change  exhibited  in  the  most  di- 
verse kinds  when  their  locality  is  changed.  The  small, 
early  corn  of  the  North,  becomes  the  tall,  later-maturing 
corn  of  the  South,  after  being  cultivated  for  two  or  three 
seasons  in  Louisiana ;  and  the  Oregon,  with  every  kernel 
safely  encased  in  its  separate  calyx,  in  the  climate  of  New 
York,  soon  exchanges  this  partial  covering  for  the  more  com- 
prehensive husk.  Similar  changes  are  characteristic  of  every 
variety  ever  coming  within  our  notice. 

Preparation  of  Seed. — Repeated  experiments  have  de 
monstrated  the  great  utility  of  steeping  corn  for  one  or  two 
days  before  planting,  in  a  solution  of  saltpetre.  This  accele- 
rates the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  is  a  protection  against  birds, 
squirrels  and  mice,  and  for  a  while  it  will  keep  ofi"  worms. 
An  effectual  remedy  against  these  depredations,  is  to  add 
half  a  pint  of  boiling  tar  to  a  peck  of  seed,  stirring  the  corn 
briskly  for  several  minutes,  as  the  tar  is  added,  till  every  ker- 
nel is  thinly  coated  with  it.  This  supersedes  the  necessity 
of  the  worse  tlian  absurd  remedy  of  scare-crows.  The  crows 
and  other  birds  are  of  great  advantage  to  the  farmer  on  all 
his  fields,  as  they  pick  up  numberless  insects,  grubs  and 
worms,  which  infest  the  ground  and  destroy,  or  seriously  in- 
jure the  vegetation.  Instead  of  driving  them  from  the  corn 
grounds,  they  should  be  enticed  there,  by  every  proper 
means  ;  and  by  rendering  the  grain  distasteful,  their  appe- 
tites are  sharpened  for  the  Avorms  and  insects,  the  less  con- 
spicuous, but  more  fatal  enem.ies  of  the  grain. 

Planting. — Corn  may  be  planted  in  hills  three  to  five  feet 
asimder,  leaving  from  three  to  five  stalks  well  spread  in 
each  hill,  according  to  the  kind  of  seed  and  quality  of  land 
Some  plant  in  drills,  but  this  is  objectionable  when  raised  for 
the  grain,  as  the  trouble  of  cultivation  is  greater,  without 
increasing  the  yield.  Thick  planting  gives  fewer  ears  upon 
a  stalk  and  those  of  less  size.  The  time  of  planting  at  the 
North,  ifi  usually  the  first  three  weeks  of  May,  depending 


I5S  AMERICAN    AGRICULTXTKE. 

much  on  the  season,  liate  frosts  will  sometimes  cut  down 
the  first  leaves,  without  destroying  the  germ ;  but  it  is  al- 
ways best  to  defer  planting  till  all  apprehensions  of  it  are 
removed.  In  the  more  southern  States,  earlier  planting  is 
desirable,  and  it  is  there  put  into  the  groiuid  from  February 
to  April.  To  give  regulari:y  to  the  rows  and  facilitate  after 
culture,  the  furrows  for  the  seed  should  be  struck  out  each 
way  ^vith  the  utmost  exactness,  and  twice  the  corn  planted 
that  is  necessary  to  remain.  It  requires  to  be  covered  about 
two  inches  deep.  The  surplus  plants  can  be  pulled  up  a 
the  second  hoeing,  ■u'hen  all  fear  of  injury  is  past.  If  the 
land  is  light,  it  should  be  laid  flat  before  planting,  and  after 
this,  rolled  compactly. 

Planting  machines  have  been  recently  invented  for  putting 
in  this  srain,  which  greatly  diminish  the  labor,  -while  they 
perform  the  operation  more  perfectly.  A  light  horse,  or 
mule  and  boy  can  furrow  and  drop  the  seed,  cover  and  roll, 
from  eight  to  twelve  acres  per  day ;  and  with  entire  uni- 
formity as  to  distance,  depth  of  covering,  and  quantity  of 
seed  in  each  hill. 

Cultivation. — The  ground  may  be  stirred  when  the 
plants  first  show  themselves.  This  is  most  economically 
done  with  the  cultivator  or  light  plow,  and  if  the  operation 
be  frequent  and  thorough,  there  will  be  httle  use  for  the  hoe. 
Hilling  or  heaping  the  earth  around  the  plants  should  al- 
ways be  avoided,  except  with  very  heavy  soils,  or  such  as 
are  liable  to  an  excess  of  i.  Disture ;  in  all  other  cases  it 
should  remain  flat.  Stirring  the  groimd  in  dry  weather,  is 
peculiar}^  beneficial  to  corn  and  all  hoed  crops.  Some  omii 
it  then  from  fear  of  the  escape  of  moisture,  but  its  efi'ect  is 
precisely  the  reverse,  for  nothing  so  certainly  produces  fria- 
bleuess,  porosity  and  unevenness  in  the  soil ;  and  this  we 
have  shown,  under  the  heads  of  soils  and  draining,  facili- 
tates the  admission  and  escape  of  heat,  v.'hich  inevitably 
secures  the  deposit  of  large  quantities  of  moisture,  even  in 
the  driest  and  most  sultry  weather.  Corn  and  other  crops 
that  were  withering  from  excessive  drought,  have  been  at 
once  rescued  from  its  eifects,  by  a  thorough  use  of  the  plow 
and  cultivator.  Well-drained,  dark-colored,  and  rich  porous 
fioUs  will  be  found  to  sufl"er  much  less  in  drought,  than  others 
which  lack  these  characteristics. 

Harves'ing. — If  there  be  no  danger  of  early  frost,  the 
com  may  be  suflTered  to  stand  till  fully  ripe ;  though  if  the 
stalks  are  designed  foi  fodd^'-,  they  are  better  to  be  cut  wiiei? 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION  153 

the  grain  is  well  glazed,  and  this  should  be  done  in  all  cases 
where  frost  is  expected.  Scarcely  any  injury  occurs  either 
to  the  leaf  or  grain,  if  the  corn  be  cut  and  stooked,  when 
both  would  be  seriously  damaged  from  the  same  exposure  it 
standmg. 

The  stalks  of  corn  ought  never  to  be  cut  above  the 
ear,  but  always  near  the  ground,  and  for  this  obvious  reason. 
The  sap  which  nourishes  the  grain,  is  drawn  from  the  earth, 
and  passing  through  the  stem,  enters  the  leaf,  where  a 
change  is  effected,  analogous  to  what  takes  place  in  the 
blood  when  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  lungs,  in  the  ani- 
mal system  ;  but  with  this  peculiar  difference,  however,  that 
while  tht  blood  gives  out  carbon  and  absorbs  oxygen,  plants, 
under  the  influence  of  light  and  heat,  give  out  oxygen  and 
absorb  carbon.  This  change  prepares  the  sap.  for  condensa- 
tion and  conversion  into  the  grain.  But  the  leaves  which 
thus  digest  the  food  for  the  grain  are  above  it,  and  it  is  while 
passing  downward,  that  the  change  of  the  sap  into  grain 
principally  takes  place.  If  the  stalk  be  cut  above  the  ear, 
nourishment  is  at  an  end.  It  may  then  become  firm  and 
dry,  but  it  will  not  increase  in  quantity  ;  while  if  cut  near 
the  root,  it  not  only  appropriates  the  sap  already  in  the  plant, 
but  it  also  absorbs  additional  matter  from  the  atmosphere 
which  contributes  to  its  weight  and  perfection. 

Corn  must  be  perfectly  dried  in  the  field,  and  after  this 
husked  and  carried  into  an  airy  loft,  or  stored  in  latticed  or 
open  barracks.  The  stalks  may  be  housed,  or  carefully 
stacked  for  fodder.  Many  of  our  western  farmers  allow 
both  grain  and  stalks  to  stand  in  the  field  till  wanted  for  use, 
when  they  are  fed  in  an  adjoining  enclosure.  This  is  a 
wasteful  practice,  and  cu  i  only  be  justified  by  the  very  low 
price  of  grain.  Where  labor  is  not  relatively  too  high,  it  is 
better  to  grind  or  crush  the  corn  and  cob,  and  cut  the  stalk : 
then  mix  all  together,  dampening  and  slightly  salting  the 
mixture  some  time  before  feeding  it.  Could  a  comprehen- 
sive machine  be  invented  for  grinding  the  whole  mass  of 
stalk,  husk,  cob  and  grain  together,  it  would  save  much  of 
the  food,  and  the  labor  both  in  preparing  and  digesting  it. 
When  fodder  is  high,  the  stalks  and  leaves  will  repay  the 
expense  of  cultivation. 

Freparat.ion  of  Corn  for  a  distant  viarket   requires  that 
the  grain  be  not  only  well  cured,  sound  and  dry,  but  that  it 
be  properly  kiln-dried.     This  expels  tho  moisture,  and  de. 
7# 


164  AMERICAN    AGRICULTITRE. 

eiroys  that  vitality,  which  impels  it  to  absorb  dampnct%6  when- 
ever exposed  to  it,  as  a  preliminary  aid  to  germination ;  thus 
carrying  out  that  great  law  of  reproduction,  impressed  by 
Deity  on  every  organic  structure,  Avhether  animal  or  vege- 
table, "  whose  seed  is  in  itself."  By  the  operation  of  kiln- 
drying,  it  becomes  mere  matter  divested  of  vitality,  and 
may  then  be  carried  into  all  climates  with  impunity. 

Corn  for  Soili?tg. — Corn  has  recently  been  much  culti- 
vated for  fodder,  and  for  this  p:rpose,  the  soil  must  be  in  high 
condition  and  well  pulverized.  It  may  be  sown  broadcast 
and  harrowed  in,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  bushels  per  acre. 
But  a  much  better  method  is,  to  sow  thickly  in  drills,  and 
stir  the  ground  Avith  a  light  plow  or  cultivator.  The  sowing 
may  be  done  early  or  late,  though  the  first  is  most  success- 
ful. It  should  be  cut  before  the  frosts  touch  it,  and  dried 
previous  to  housing.  Several  tons  of  excellent  forage  have 
been  raised  in  this  way,  from  a  single  acre.  In  a  report  to 
the  Pedee  Agricultural  Society  of  South  Carolina,  it  is  as- 
serted, that  138,816  lbs.  of  green  corn  stalks  have  been  cut 
from  one, acre  in  a  season,  weighing  when  dry,  27.297  lbs. 

The  Uses  of  Corn  in  this  country  are  numerous.  It  is 
largely  fed  to  fattening  and  working  animals,  but  must  be 
cautiously  given  to  the  latter,  and  especially  in  hot  weather. 
It  is  extensively  manufactured  into  high  Avines  and  whiskey, 
the  consumption  of  Avhich  as  a  beverage,  evinces  a  sad  per- 
version of  one  of  the  best  gifts  of  nature.  It  is  converted 
into  oil,  molasses  and  sugar  to  a  very  limited  extent ;  and  is 
variously  and  largely  applied  to  domestic  uses.  While  green 
it  is  boiled  or  roasted  in  the  ear ;  or  it  is  cut  from  the  cob 
and  cooked  with  the  garden  or  kidney  bean,  which  forms  the 
Indian  succotash.  Wnen  ripe,  it  is  hulled  in  a  weak  ley, 
then  boiled  and  known  as  hulled  corn,  a  most  convenient 
and  acceptable  dish  in  the  frontier  settlements,  remote  from 
mills ;  or  it  is  parched  over  a  hot  tire,  affording  a  delicious 
lunch,  and  a  convenient  provision  for  hunters,  as  popped 
corn.  Hominy  or  "iamp  is  a  favorite  dish,  and  consists 
of  corn  coarsely  ground  and  boiled  in  water  ;  and  hasty  j^ud- 
ding  Ai^exs  from  this,  only  in  being  made  of  fine  meaJ.  The 
meal  may  be  compounded  Avith  milk  and  eggs  into  jonny- 
cakes,  puddings,  griddles  and  other  delicacies,  universally 
esteemed  for  the  table ;  and  when  scalded  and  mixed  witli 
the  flour  of  wheat  or  rye,  it  imparts  additional  swuetness  to 
bread,  wiiil  ^  it  scarcely  diminishes  its  proportionate  nutritive 
properties 


GRAIN   AND    ITS    CULTIVATION. 


155 


RICE  (Oryza  sativa,  Fig.  38). 

This  grain  probably  contributes  directly 
to  the  support  of  a  larger  iiumber  of  the 
human  family  than  any  other  plant.  In 
China,  and  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
southern  part  of  Asia ;  throughout  the  in- 
numerable and  densely  populated  islands  of 
the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans ;  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Europe,  and  a  large  extent  of 
Africa ;  and  through  no  inconsiderable  por- 
tion of  the  North  and  South  American  con- 
tinent and  its  central  islands,  it  is  extensive- 
ly grown,  and  forms  the  staple  food  of  the 
inhabitants.  Rice  requires  a  moist  soil,  and 
is  much  more  productive  when  subject  to  in- 
undation. A  hot  sun  is  also  necessary  to 
mature  it ;  and  as  a  result  of  these  two  es- 
sential conditions,  its  culture  is  limited  to 
regions  much  more  circumscribed  than  are 
Fig.  S8.  allotted  to  Avheat,   maize,  or    some    of   the 

usually  cultivated  plants.  I  subjoin,  from  an  excellent 
article  on  rice  and  its  cultivation,  addressed  to  the  Avriter 
by  Dr.  Cartwright,  a  practical  planter  of  Mississippi. 

Varieties  of  Rice. — "  Of  these  there  are  many,  but  I  am  in- 
duced to  believe  that  they  are  all  essezitially  aquatic.  All  the 
varieties,  yet  discovered,  flourish  best  uzider  the  inundation  sys- 
tem of  culture  ;  yield  more  to  the  acre,  give  less  trouble,  and  re- 
quire less  labor.  But  each  variety  grows  well  on  light,  moist 
uplands  without  irrigation,  when  cultivated  with  the  hoe  or 
plow.  The  product,  however,  is  so  mvieh  less  than  by  the  irri- 
gation system,  and  the  laborof  tillage  so  much  more,  that  the 
upland  producer  never  can  compete  successfully  with  the  low- 
lander.  The  former  may  curtail  his  expenses  by  growing 
rice  for  domestic  uses,  but  he  cannot  profitably,  produce 
it  for  sale.  Besides  the  ten-fold  labor  ^vhich  rice  on  upland 
requires  in  comparison  Avith  that  cultivated  by  the  irrigation 
system,  it  cannot  be  so\vn  thick  enough  to  make  a  large  yield 
per  acre.  Space  must  be  left  for  the  plow  or  hoe  to  till  the 
rice,  which  is  not  necessary  in  those  localities  where  it  can 
be  overflowed  at  will,  and  the  Avater  drawn  off  as  occasion 
may  require. 

Cultivation  of  hcMand  Rice. — The  method  pursued  ou 
the  rice  lands  of  thi    lower   Mississippi,  is  6.:  sow  the  rica 


156  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

broadcast  about  as  thick  as  wheat,  and  harrow  -t  in  with  a 
hght  harrow  having  many  teeth  ;  the  ground  being  first  well 
plou'ed  and  prepared  b}^  ditches  and  e  nbankments  for  inunda- 
tion. It  is  generally  sown  in  March,  and  immediately  after 
sowing  the  water  is  let  on,  so  as  barely  to  overflow 
the  ground.  The  water  is  withdraAvn  on  the  second,  third, 
or  fourth  day,  or  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to  swell.  The 
rice  very  soon  after  comes  up  and  grows  finely.  "When  it 
has  attained  about  three  inches  in  height,  the  water  is  again 
let  oil,  the  top  leaves  being  left  a  little  above  the  Avater.  Com- 
plete immersion  would  kill  the  plant.  A  fortnight  previous 
to  harvest,  the  water  is  drawn  off  to  give  the  stalks  strength, 
and  to  dry  the  ground  for  the  convenience  of  the  reapers. 

A  different  method  is  practiced  in  the  northern  part  of 
Italy.  The  seed  is  sown  in  April,  previously  to  which  it  is 
soaked  a  day  or  two  in  water.  After  .sowing,  about  two 
inches  of  water  is  let  in  upon  the  ground.  The  rice  comes 
up  through  the  water,  which  is  then  dravv^n  off  to  give  the 
plant  strength,  and  after  some  days,  is  again  let  on.  The 
rice  is  more  apt  to  mildew  under  this  practice,  than  our  meth- 
od, of  letting  the  water  on  about  the  time  the  Italians  draw  it 
off. 

The  same  measure  of  ground  yields  three  times  as  much 
Mice  as  tcheat.  The  only  labor  after  sowing,  is  to  seo 
that  the  rice  is  properly  irrigated  ;  except  in  some  localities 
where  aquatic  plants  prove  troublesome,  the  water  effectual- 
ly destroying  all  others.  The  rice  grounds  of  the  lower 
Mississippi  produce  about  seventy-five  dollars  worth  of  rice 
per  acre.  The  variety  called  the  Creole  white  rice,  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  best. 

Cultivation  of  Upland  Rice. — In  the  eastern  part  of  the 
State  of  Mississipi,  called  the  Piney  woods,  rice  is  very 
generally  cultivated  on  the  uplands.  Although  it  cannot  be 
made  a  profitable  article  of  export,  yet  it  affords  the  people 
of  the  interior  an  abundant  supply  of  a  healthy  food  for  them- 
selves, and  a  good  provender  for  their  cattle,  and  makos  them 
independent  of  the  foreign  market.  Unlike  other  kinds  ol 
gram,  it  can  be  kept  for  many  years  in  a  warm  climate, 
without  spoiling,  by  winnowing  it  semi-annually,  which 
prevents  the  weevil  and  a  small  black  insect  that  sometimes 
attacks  it. 

It  is  cultivated  entirely  with  the  plow  and  harrow,  and 
grows  well  on  the  pine  barrens.  A  kind  of  shovel  plow 
ilrawn    by   one    horse,  is    driven    tl  rough     the    unbroken 


GRA  N    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  157 

pine-forest ;  not  a  tree  being  cut  or  belted,  and  no  grubbing 
being  necessary,  as  there  is  little  or  no  undergrowth.  The 
plow  makes  a  shallow  furrow  about  an  inch  or  two  deep,  the 
furrows  about  three  feet  apart.  The  rice  is  dropped  into 
them  and  covered  with  a  harrow.  The  middles,  or  spaces  be- 
tween the  furroAvs,  are  not  broken  up  until  the  rice  attains 
several  inches  in  height.  One  ox  two  plowings  suthce  in  the 
Piney  woods  for  its.  cultivation — weeds  and  grass,  OAving  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  not  being  troublesome.  A  similar 
method  of  cultivation  obtains  on  the  prairie  land  of  the  north- 
western States.  Rice,  like  hemp,  does  not  impoverish  the 
soil.*  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  good  preparatory  crop  for 
some  others,  as  Indian  corn.  The  pine  barrens  of  Missis- 
sipi  would  produce  rice  ad  infinitum,  if  it  were  not  that  the 
land,  after  a  few  years,  owing  to  the  sandy  nature  of  the 
soil,  becomes  too  dry  for  it. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  Arnal,  that  twelve  pounds  of 
wheat  flour  and  two  pounds  of  rice  will  make  twenty-four 
pounds  of  an  excellent  bread,  very  white  and  good  ;  whereas, 
without  the  addition  of  rice,  14  pounds  of  flour  will  only 
make  18  pounds  of  bread.  Like  other  kinds  of  grain,  rice 
adapts  itself  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  particular  mode  of 
cultivation ;  but  if  the  seed  be  not  changed,  or  selected  from 
the  best  specimens  of  the  plant,  it  will  ultimately  degene- 
rate. Thus  in  Piedmont,  after  a  long  series  of  years,  the 
rice  became  so  much  affected  with  a  kind  of  blight  called  the 
brusone,  as  ro  compel  the  Piedmontese  to  import  fresh  seed 
in  1829,  from  South  Carolina.  The  American  rice  intro- 
duced into  Piedmont,  escaped  the  brusone,  but  it  was  seve- 
ral years  before  it  adapted  itself  to  the  soil  and  climate. 

Some  years  ago,  a  traveller,  finding  rice  growing  in  great 
perfection  on  the  mountains  and  highlands  of  Asia,  particu- 

•  If  this  remark  be  limited  to  the  lowland  rice,  we  fully  agree  with 
it ;  as  the  water  and  the  materials  it  holds,  either  in  suspension  or 
solution,  and  to  which  it  is  exposed  through  so  long  a  period  of  its 
growth,  afford  the  greater  part  of  the  nutritive  matter  appropriated  by 
the  plant.  But  if  applied  to  upland  rice,  we  must  dissent  in  toto  ; 
for  the  rich,  life-sustaining  principles  of  this  grain,  draw  largely  on 
the  soils  where  water  is  not  present;  for  like  the  white  grains,  the 
wheat,  oats,  and  barley.,  its  narrow,  grass-like  leaves  do  not  draw 
much  from  the  atmosphere.  The  intelligent  writer  indirectly  concedes 
this  in  the  followlni;  sentence  but  one.  The  soil  becomes  too  dry  for 
it,  simply  because  it  is  exhausted  of  those  vital,  fertilizing  principles, 
the  salts  and  carbonaceous  Clatters,  which  help  to  sustain  the  re- 
quisite moisture  in  the  soil,  and  which  is  one  of  the  beneficial  results 
of  their  presence  in  it 


158  A^rERTCAN    AGRICULTURE. 

larly  Cochin  China,  named  it  Hz  sec  or  dry  rice,  and  seni 
the  seed  to  Europe,  where  n.any  experiments  were  made  with 
it.  It  yielded  no  better  than  any  other  kind  of  rice,  and  was 
found  Uke  all  others  to  succeed  best  when  inundated.  The 
reason  why  it  yielded  so  much  more  in  Asia  than  in  Europe 
can  be  readily  accounted  for,  by  the  natural  inundations  it 
receives  from  the  excessive  rains  during  the  monsoons. 

No  variety  has  been  discovered  which  yields  as  much 
out  of  the  water  as  it  does  in  it.  There  are  many  localities 
in  the  United  States,  where  the  culture  of  dee  by  the  irriga- 
ting system,  would  rather  serve  to  make  ",he  surrounding 
neighborhoods  healthy  instead  of  sickly.  1'  is  generally  ad- 
mitted, that  a  given  surface  of  ground  completely  inundated, 
is  much  less  unhealthy  than  the  same  surface  partially  in- 
undated, or  in  transitu  between  the  wet  and  the  dry  state. 
Hence  mill-ponds  which  partially  dry  up  in  the  summer,  are 
fruitful  sources  of  disease.  Some  of  the  best  rice  is  said  to 
grow  on  the  bottom  of  mill-ponds.  Nothing  more  is  ne- 
cessary, than  to  make  the  bottom  perfectly  level,  and 
then  to  overflow  the  whole  surface  just  deep  enough  to  keep 
the  top  leaves  above  water.  As  if  to  show  that  unhealthi- 
ness  is  not  necessarily  connected  with,  the  culture  of  this 
valuable  grain,  nature  has  imposed  a  law  upon  it,  ordering 
that  it  should  flourish  better  when  overflowed  with  pure 
running  water  than  with  the  stagnant  waters  of  impure  lakes 
and  marshes. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  rice,  which  are  said  to  succeed 
best  on  uplands,  the  long  and  the  round.  The  former  has  a 
red  chaff,  and  is  vejry  difficult  to  beat.  The  latter  shakes 
out,  if  not  cut  as  soon  as  ripe.  They  nevertheless  succeed 
best  under  the  inundation  system  of  culture.  In  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  rice  is  cultivated  as  far  North  as  the  46th  degree 
of  latitude.  The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  better  suit- 
ed to  it  than  that  of  Europe,  because  our  summers  are  hotter. 
In  the  northern  part  of  China,  the  variety  called  the  imperial 
rice,  or  riz  sec  de  la  Chine  (the  oriza  sativa  mutica),  is  more 
precocious  than  any  other,  is  said  to  yield  a  heavy  harvest, 
and  to  constitute  the  principal  food  for  the  people  of  that 
populous  region.  But  it  has  succeeded  no  better  in  Europe 
than  any  other  kind  of  rice. 

The  best  rice  lands  of  South  Carolina  are  valued  at  five 
hundred  dollars  per  acre,  while  the  best  cotton  lands  sell  for 
a  tenth  part  ci"  that  sum,  proving  that  rice  is  more  profitable 
than  cotton      The  profits  of  a  crop  should  no   so  much  bees- 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION.  loO 

timated  by  the  yield  per  acre,  as  the  number  cf  acres  a  labor- 
er can  till.  After  the  land  is  properly  prepared  for  inunda- 
tion, by  levelling,  ditching,  and  embankments,  a  single  indi- 
vidual can  grow  almost  an  indefinite  quantity  of  rice.  Rice 
is  no  doubt  ultimately  destined  to  supersede  cotton  in  a  large 
portion  of  Mississippi  and  Louisiana." 

The  varieties  of  Rice  most  grown  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  whi"h  have  hitherto  been  the  greatest  rice-produc- 
ing States  of  he  Union,  are  the  Gold-seed  rice,  the  Guinea, 
the  Common  White,  and  the  White-hear ded.  There  are 
several  other  /arieties,  but  generally  inferior  to  the  foregoing. 
The  best  are  produced  by  careful  cultivation  on  soils  suited  to 
this  grain,  and  by  a  careful  selection  of  seed. 

In  1839,  South  Carolina  produced  over  66,000,000  lbs.; 
Georgia,  13,400,000  ;  Louisiana,  3,765,000  ;  and  North  Caro- 
lina, 3,324,000,  no  other  State  producing  one  million  pounds. 
Rice  will  keep  for  years  uninjured,  if  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  chaff  or  husk  as  it  is  gathered,  in  which  condition  it  is 
called  paddy. 

From  the  immense  extent  of  our  lowlands  throughout  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi,  which,  if  subjected  to  the  wet  tillage 
of  rice,  may  be  considered  of  inexhaustible  fertility,  we  may 
expect  at  some  future  day,  to  surpass  every  other  portion  of 
the  globe  in  the  quantity,  as  we  noAV  do  in  the  quality  ot 
our  rice. 

MILLET  (Panicum  milliaceum) . 

This  is  the  species  of  millet  usually  grown  in  the  United 
States.  In  its  form  and  the  manner  of  bearing  its  seeds, 
the  millet  strongly  resembles  a  miniature  broom  corn.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  two  to  four  feet,  with  a  profusion  of 
stalks,  heads  and  leaves,  which  furnish  excellent  forage  for 
cattle.  From  60  to  80  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  have  been 
raised,  and  with  straw  equivalent  to  one  or  two  tons  of  hay ; 
but  an  average  crop  may  be  estimated  at  about  one  third 
of  this  quantity.  Owing  to  the  great  waste  during  the 
ripening  of  the  seed,  from  the  shelling  of  the  earliest  of  it 
before  the  last  is  matured,  and  the  frequent  depredations  ot 
birds  which  are  very  fond  of  it,  millet  is  more  profitably  cut 
when  the  first  seeds  have  begun  to  ripen,  and  then  harvest- 
ed for  fodder.  It  is  cured  like  hay,  and  on  the  best  lands 
yields  from  two  to  four  tons  per  acre.  All  cattle  relish  it, 
and  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  fully  equal  to  good  hay. 

Cultivation. — Millet  requires  a  dry,  rich,  and  well  pul- 
verized soil      It  will  grow  on  thiit  soil,  but  best  repays  on 


160 


AMERICAN    AQRICULTUEE. 


the  most  fertile.  It  should  be  sown 
broadcast  or  in  drills  from  the  1st  of 
May  to  1st  of  July.  If  for  hay  and 
sown  broadcast,  40  quarts  per  acre 
will  be  required  ;  if  sown  in  drills  for 
the  grain,  eight  quarts  of  seed  will  suf- 
fice. It  will  ripen  in  60  to  75  days 
with  favorable  Aveather.  Whende- 
.signed  for  fodder,  the  nearer  it  can 
approach  to  ripening,  without  waste 
in  harvesting,  the  more  valuable  will 
he  the  crop. 

Indian  or  Grand  Millet  (Sor- 
ghu7)i  vulgare,  Fig.  38).^ — This  mil- 
let is  much  cultivated  in  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  Arabia,  the  West  Indies,  and 
elsewhere.  It  grows  from  four  to 
six  feet  high,  affording  a  large  quan- 
tity of  forage,  and  much  seed  or 
giain,  which  is  known  as  Guinea 
corn.  This  is  gromid  into  flour  and 
used  by  the  laborers  where  grown. 
It  is  also  an  economical  food  for  cat- 
t.e,  swine,  and  fo\vls.  It  is  not 
raix'd  to  any  extent  in  the  United 
States,  but  might  be  advantageously 
F,G.38.  introduced  into  the  southern  States. 

Buck- Wheat,  or  Beech- Wheat  {Polygonum  fa gopy rum. 
Fig.  39),  is  a  grain  much  cultivated  in  this 
country.  It  grows  freely  on  light  soils,  but 
yields  a  remunerating  crop  only  on  those 
which  are  fertile.  Fresh  manure  is  partic- 
ularly injurious  to  this  grain.  Sandy  loams 
are  its  favorite  soils,  especially  such  as  have 
lain  long  in  pasture,  and  these  should  be  well 
plowed  and  harrowed.  It  may  be  sown 
from  the  1st  of  May  to  the  10th  of  August, 
but  in  the  northern  States,  this  ought  to  be 
done  as  early  as  June  or  July,  or  it  may  be 
injured  by  early  frosts,  which  are  fatal  to  it. 
It  is  sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  three  to 
six  pecks  per  acre,  and  harvested  when  the 
earliest  seed  is  fully  ripe.  The  plant  often 
Fio.  39  continues  flowering  after  this,  and  when  the 


GRAIN    AND    ITS    CULTIVATION. 


161 


early  seed  is  blighted,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  plant  may  be 
left  till  these  last  have  matured.  As  it  is  liable  to  heat, 
it  should  be  placed  in  small  stacks  of  two  or  three  tons 
each,  but  it  is  better  to  thresh  out  the  grain  at  once.  If  not 
perfectly  dry,  the  straw  may  be  stacked  with  layers  of  other 
straw,  and  when  well  cured,  it  will  be  a  valuable  fodder  for 
cattle.  Sheep  will  feed  and  thrive  as  well  on  this  straw  as 
on  good  hay. 

Uses. — This  grain  is  ground  and  bolted  and  the  flour  is 
much  used  for  human  food.  Before  grinding,  the  hull  or 
outer  covering  should  be  removed.  When  thus  prepared, 
the  flour  is  as  white  and  delicate  in  appearance  as  the  best 
rye,  it  is  equally  light  and  digestible,  and  is  scarcely  inferior 
to  wheat  in  its  nutritive  properties.  The  grain  is  used  for 
fattening  swine,  but  is  most  profitable  when  mixed  with 
corn.  Poultry  thrive  upon  it.  Buckwheat  was  formerly 
employed  as  a  fertilizer,  but  for  this  object  it  is  inferior  to 
the  clovers,  in  all  cases  where  the  soil  is  capa- 
ble of  sustaining  them.  Its  rapid  growth 
will  insure  the  maturing  and  turning  under 
of  two  crops  in  one  season.  There  are  other 
varieties  than  the  one  specified,  but  none  of 
equal  value  for  general  cultivation  in  this 
country. 

Canary  Grass  {^Phalaris  canariensis. 
Fig.  40). — This,  like  the  millet,  is  an  annual, 
and  is  used  like  many  other  species  of 
the  family  of  grasses,  both  for  the  seed  and 
forage.  Its  chief  use,  however,  is  as  a  food 
for  the  canary,  and  other  feathered  pets. 

It  is  sown  quite  early  in  the  season,  in  drills, 
12  to  18  inches  apart,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
pecks  per  acre;  in  a  rich,  well-pulverized  loam  ; 
lightly  covered,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds  by 
the  cultivator  and  hoe.  It  is  cut  when  fully 
ripe,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  ex- 
posed to  the  dews  or  rain,  to  loosen  the  chaff, 
which  otherwise  is  very  dill  3u't  of  removal. 


162  iMERICAN   AGRICULTITRE. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS. 

THE    PEA  (Pisnm  satiTXun). 

The  pea,  bean,  tare  or  vetch,  lupine,  the  clovers,  and 
some  other  plants,  are  all  embraced  in  the  botanical  order 
LeguniinoscB.  The  pea  is  valuable  for  cultivation,  not  only 
for  the  table,  but  for  many  of  the  domestic  animals.  It  is 
largely  fed  to  swine,  sheep  and  poultry.  For  the  former,  it 
should  be  soaked,  boiled  or  ground.  If  land  is  adapted  to  it, 
few  crops  can  be  more  profitably  raised  for  their  use.  It 
ripens  early,  and  when  beginning  to  harden,  they  may  be  fed 
with  the  vines,  and  the  animals  will  masticate  the  whole, 
and  fatten  rapidly. 

The  Soil. — The  heaviest  clays  will  bear  good  peas,  but 
a  calcareous  or  Miieat  soil  is  better.  Strong  lands  produce 
the  best  crops,  but  these  should  be  made  so  by  manures  pre- 
viously applied,  as  the  addition  of  such  as  are  fresh,  increases 
the  growth  of  haulm  or  straw,  and  sometimes  dim.inishes 
both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  pea.  WhensoM-n  on  a 
poor  sward,  the  manure  should  be  spread  before  plowing.  A 
dressing  of  well-rotted  manure  increases  the  crop,  and  is  a 
good  preparation  whe^i  intended  to  be  followed  by  wheat. 

Varieties. — Of  these  there  are  many.  The  earlier  kinds 
are  generally  indifferent  bearers,  and  their  cultivation  is 
Mmited  almost  exclusively  to  the  garden.  Of  those  for 
field  culture,  the  marrow-fat  are  among  the  richest  of  the  peas, 
and  they  are  preferred  for  good  lands.  The  small  yellow 
are  perhaps  the  best  for  poorer  soils.  There  is  a  very  pro- 
lific husli-pca  grown  in  Georgia,  bearing  pods  six  or  seven 
inches  long,  which  hang  in  clusters,  on  a  short  upright  stem. 
The  pods  are  filled  with  a  white  pea,  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed for  the  table,  either  green  or  dry.  In  that  latitude, 
they  bear  two  or  three  crops  in  one  season. 

Cultivation. — Peas  should  have  a  clean  fallow  or  fresh, 
rich  sod,  Avell  harrowed.  They  are  not  affected  by  frosts, 
and  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry.  This  will 
enable  them  to  ripen  in  season  to  plow  for  Avheat.     They 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  163 

are  very  liable  to  attack  from  the  pea-bug,  which  deposits  its 
eo-g  in  the  pea  while  in  its  green  state,  where  it  hatches;  and 
the  worm,  by  feeding  on  the  pea,  diminishes  its  weiglit  nearljr 
one  half.  Here  it  remains  through  the  winter,  and  comes 
out  as  a  bug  the  following  season.  To  avoid  this  pest,  some 
sow  only  such  seed  as  has  been  kept  oy»r  two  years,  while 
others  sow  as  late  as  tlie  15th  to  the  25th  of  May,  which  delays 
the  pea  till  after  the  period  of  its  attacks,  but  this  latter  prac- 
tice seldom  gives  a  large  crop.  It  may  be  killed  by  pouring 
boiling  water  upon  the  seed,  stirring  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
then  draining  it  off.  Peas  are  sometimes  sown  in  drills,  but 
most  usually  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  bushels 
per  acre.  It  is  better  to  plow  them  in,  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches,  and  afterwards  roll  the  ground  smooth,  to  facilitate 
gathering.  When  sown  in  drills,  they  may  b^  worked  by 
the  cultivator,  soon  after  coming  up.  The  growth  is  pro- 
moted by  steeping  the  seed  for  twenty  or  thirty  hours  in 
urine,  and  then  rolling  in  ashes  or  plaster. 

Harvesting  is  accomplished  by  cutting  with  the  sickle 
or  scythe,  or  what  is  more  expeditious,  when  fully  ripe  so 
that  the  roots  pull  easily,  with  the  horse  rake.  When  thus 
gathered  into  heaps  and  dried,  they  may  be  threshed,  and 
the  haulm  carefully  stacked  for  sheep  fodder.  If  this  is  se- 
cured in  good  condition,  cattle  and  sheep  will  thrive  upon 
it.  Peas  are  frequently  sown  with  oats,  and  when  thus 
grown,  they  may  be  fed  to  sheep  or  horses  as  harvested  or 
threshed,  or  made  into  meal  for  swine. 

The  Cow  or  Indian  Pea,  freqiiently  called  the  Stock  Pea. 
The  Southern  Bean  would  be  a  more  appropriate  name  for 
it,  as  it  is  grown  exclusively  in  the  southern  States.  It  is  a 
desirable  crop,  either  as  a  fertilizer,  or  as  food  for  domestic 
animals.  Its  long  vines  and  succulent  leaves,  which  draw 
much  of  their  substance  from  the  air,  and  its  rapid  and  lux- 
uriant growth,  particularly  adapt  it  to  the  first  object ;  while 
its  numerous  and  well-filled  pods,  and  its  great  redundancy 
of  stem  and  leaf,  afibrd  large  quantities  of  forage.  This  is 
improved  for  cattle,  when  harvested  before  the  seed  is  fully 
ripe.  It  is  sown  broadcast,  in  drills,  or  hoed  in  among  corn, 
when  the  latter  is  laid  by  for  the  season.  If  in  drills,  it  may 
be  cultivated  in  its  early  stages  by  the  plow,  shovel-harrow, 
or  cultivator.  It  can  be  cut  with  the  scythe,  or  drawn  to- 
gether with  a  heavy  iron-toothed  harrow,  or  horse  rake,  as 
with  the  common  pea.  It  requires  a  dry,  mellow  soil,  and  is 
(.veil  suited  to  clays 


164  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE, 


THE  BEAN  (Phaseolus  vulgaris). 

The  bean  is  often  a  field  crop  in  this  country,  and  espe 
cially  in  the  northern  and  middle  Statos.  It  is  principally 
used  for  the  table,  either  green  or  dry.  It  is  a  palatable  and 
highly  condensed  f(3od,  containing  much  in  a  small  compass. 
In  proportion  to  its  weight,  it  gives  more  nutriment  than 
any  of  the  ordinary  vegetables  ;  according  to  Einhof,  yield- 
ing 84  per  cent,  of  nutritive  matter,  while  wheat  gives  only 
74.  It  has,  in  common  with  the  pea  and  vetch,  though  in  a 
greater  proportion,  a  peculiar  principle,  termed  legumin, 
which  is  analogous  to  casein,  the  animal  principle  in  milk. 
This  is  convertible  into  cheese,  and  in  its  nutritive  proper- 
ties, it  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  fibrin  of  lean  meat,  the 
albumen  of  eggs,  and  other  animal  matters.  There  is  no 
vegetable  we  produce,  which  so  nearly  supplies  the  place 
of  animal  food,  as  the  bean. 

Soil. — The  bean  is  partial  to  a  quick,  dry  soil.  Too  great 
strength  of  soil,  or  fresh  manuring,  gives  a  large  quantity 
of  vine,  without  a  corresponding  quantity  of  fruit. 

C%dtivation. — The  land  should  be  finely  pulverized,  and 
if  at  all  inclined  to  wet,  it  should  be  ridged.  Beans  are 
tender  plants  and  will  not  bear  the  slightest  frost,  and  as  they 
grow  rapidly,  they  will  be  sure  to  ripen,  if  planted  when 
this  is  no  longer  to  be  apprehended.  The  seed  is  exposed 
to  rot  if  put  into  the  ground  in  cold,  wet  weather,  and  the 
land  should,  therefore,  be  previously  well  warmed  by  the  sun. 
The  bush  beans  are  the  only  kind  used  for  field  planting, 
and  of  these  there  are  several  sub-varieties.  The  long  gar- 
den beans,  white,  red  or  mottled,  are  great  bearers,  of  fine 
quality,  and  early  in  maturing.  This  is  important,  when 
other  crops  are  to  succeed  the  same  season.  They  are  usu- 
ally planted  in  hills,  about  two  feet  apart,  and  also  in  drills, 
and  covered  with  two  inches  of  fine  earth.  They  have  been 
sown  broadcast,  on  clean,  dry  soils,  and  produced  largely. 
When  planted  in  drills,  from  five  to  eight  plants  should  be 
left  in  each,  according  to  their  proximity ;  or  if  in  drills,  they 
need  from  six  to  eight  pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

Harvesting. — When  the  beans  are  fully  formed,  and 
there  is  danger  of  frost,  pull  and  throw  them  into  heaps,  in 
which  condition  the  frost  scarcely  affects  them.  If  the 
ground  is  not  wanted  for  other  vises,  they  may  stand  till  the 
latest  pods  assume  a  yellow  color.  They  are  pulled  with 
ease  when  the  plant  is  mature,  as  the   fibres  of  the  root  are 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 


16S 


b 


by  that  time  dea.^.  This  is  more  quickly  accomplished  with 
an  iron  hook-rake,  or  if  the  stalks  are  partially  green,  they 
can  be  mown.  If  the  vines  are  not  dry,  let  them  remain  for 
a  while  in  small  heaps,  and  afterwards  collect  in  larger  piles, 
around  stakes  set  at  com-enient  distances,  with  the  roots  in 
the  centre  and  secured  at  the  top  by  a  wisp  of  straw.  "When 
well  dried,  thresh,  clean  and  spread  them  till  they  are  quite 
tree  from  dampness. 

Uses  for  Farm  stock. — The  straw  or  haulm  is  an  excel- 
lent fodder  for  sheep,  and  it  ought  always  to  be  stacked  for 
their  use.  Sheep  are  the  only  animals  which  eat  them  raw  ; 
and  for  them,  no  species  of  grain  is  better  suited  than  the 
bean,  when  fed  in  moderate  quantities.  Swine,  cattle  and 
poultry,  will  thrive  on  them  when  boiled.  Sixty  bushels 
have  been  raised  on  an  acre,  worth  from  one  to  two  dollars 
per  bushel. 

THE  ENGLISH  FIELD  BEAN    (Vicia  faba). 

Is  cultivated  under  many  varieties  in  Europe,  and  partic- 
ularly in  Great  Britain,  as  a  field  crop  for  the  use  of  horses 
and  other  animals.  Among  these  are  tlie  Windsor,  the  tick, 
the  long  pods  and  others.  Arthur  Young  prefers  "  the 
common  little  horse-bean  as  being  more  generally  marketa- 
ble." I  have  raised  several  of  these  varieties,  and  although 
entirely  successful,  have  found  them  less  adapted  to  our  cli- 
mate and  agriculture,  than  the  ordinary  crops.  They  prefer 
a  strong  clay,  or  loamy  clay  soils. 

THE  TARE,  VETCH  OR  FITCH  ^V.  sativa,  Fig.  41). 

Of  this  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
winter  and  the  spring,  both  of 
which  are  hardy  and  productive. 
It  is  deemed  an  important  crop  in 
Europe,  where  it  is  much  cultiva- 
ted for  green  fodder  or  soilino-  and 
frequently  it  is  used  as  pasturage, 
or  cut  and  cured  for  hay.  It  is  par- 
tial to  clay,  but  grows  indifferently 
on  any  rich  soil  which  is  not  too 
dry.  It  is  sown  broad -ast  or  in 
drills,  but  generally  the  rormer,  on 
Avell-pulverized  lands,  and  covered 
with  the  harrow,  demanding  no 
after  attention  except  the  exter- 
mination of   weeds.     Tares  have 


Fia.  41. 


166 


aXEKIOAN  agricitlturb. 


hitherto  been  little  grown  in  this  country,  but  in  certain 
soils  and  situations,  they  may  be  introduced  as  a  substitute 
for  clover,  where,  from  any  cause,  the  latter  does  not  grow 
successfully.     All  domestic  stock  are  fond  of  them. 

THE  PINDAR,  GROUND  PEA,  OR  PEA-NTTT  (Arachis  hTpogcea). 

This  is  a  legumen  and  is  cultivated  with  profit  in  the  south- 
ern States,  on  light,  loamy  or  sandy  lands,  where  it  yields 
from  30  to  60,  or  even  80  bushels  per  acre,  besides  furnish- 
ing much  haulm  for  forage.  It  is  planted  in  hills,  or  sown 
in  drills  four  to  five  feet  apart,  and  worked  with  a  light  plow 
or  cultivator,  immediately  after  the  plants  thow  themselves 
above  ground.  They  soon  overspread  the  whole  surface. 
When  properly  matured,  the  roots  are  loosened  by  a  fork 
and  pulled  up  by  hand,  and  after  curing,  are  put  under  cover 
for  winter's  use.  They  contain  a  large  quantity  of  oil  of  a 
superior  quality  and  flavor,  which  is  suitable  for  the  table 
and  various  purposes  in  the  arts. 

The  peat-nut  is  in  high  repute  for  its  fattening  qualities, 
when  fed  to  stock.  Swine  are  particularly  partial  to  them ; 
and  if  allowed  to  run  on  a  field  containing  both  them  and 
corn,  they  vr'M  remain  among  the  pea-nuts  till  entirely  ex- 
hausted, resorting  to  the  grain  occasionally,  for  a  change  of 
food.  They  can  lie  in  the  ground  all  winter,  uninjured  by 
frosts  or  rains.  They  are  much  used  for  human  food,  after 
drying  and  baking. 

THE  WHITE  LUPINB  (Lnpinus  albns,   Fig.  42). 


This  plant  is  sometimes  raised 
in  southern  Europe,  where  the 
seed  is  used  as  human  food.  It 
was  cultivated  by  the  Romans,  and 
others  among  the  ancients,  for  the 
same  purpose.  It  is  frequently 
used  as  a  forage  plant,  for  which 
purpose  the  whole  plant  is  cut  and 
fed  green,  rr  cured  as  hay.  It  is 
sometimes  made  use  of  as  a  fertili- 
zer, for  which  it  is  well  adapted. 
It  requires  a  similar  soil  and  culti* 
vation  with  the  rea. 


Fia  4S. 


&OOT8.  107 


CHAPTER   IX. 


ROOTS. 

THE  POTATO,  (Solanum  tuberosum). 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  the  American  Continent.  It  is 
found  in  a  wild  state  both  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  and 
was  probably  discovered  in  the  same  condition  by  the  early 
settlers  of  North  America.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been 
taken  into  Spain  and  Italy,  early  in  the  16th  century,  by 
Spanish  adventurers,  as  it  "was  cultivated  in  those  countries 
in  1550.  In  1588,  it  was  introduced  into  Vienna  from  Italy  ; 
and  also  into  Eng-land,  probably  as  early  as  1586,  by  the 
colonists  of  Virginia,  who  were  sent  out  by  Sir  "Walter  Ra- 
\eigh.  On  its  first  introduction  into  Europe,  it  was  con- 
sidered a  delicacy  ;  and  it  is  not  until  ^vithin  a  comparatively 
recent  period,  that  it  has  found  its  way  into  both  conti- 
nents as  an  article  of  agricultural  attention,  and  an  almost 
indispensable  food  for  man  and  beast. 

Yarieties. — These  are  almost  illimitable.  In  form  they 
are  round,  oblong,  flat  and  curved  or  kidney-shaped  ;  they 
vary  in  size  from  the  delicate  lady-finger  to  the  gigantic 
blue-nose ;  their  exterior  is  rough  or  polished,  and  of  nearly 
every  hue,  white,  yellow,  red,  and  almost  black  ;  and  the 
surface  is  sometimes  smooth  and  even,  with  the  eye  scarcely 
discernible  ;  or  deeply  indented  with  innumerable  sunken 
eyes,  like  the  Pvohan  and  Merino.  The  interior  is  equally 
diversified  in  color  ;  and  is  mealy,  glutinous  or  watery ; 
sometimes  pleasant  and  sometimes  disagreeable  to  the  taste. 
They  likewise  differ  in  ripening  earlier  or  later,  and  in  beinc 
adapted  in  some  of  their  varieties  to  almost  every  peculiarity 
of  soil. 

New  kinds  are  produced  at  pleasiire,  by  planting  the 
seed  found  in  the  balls.  The  tubers  obtained  in  this  way, 
are  small  the  first  season,  but  with  careful  culture,  will  be 
large  enough  the  second  year  to  determine  their  quality, 
when  the  best  may  be  selected  for  propagation.  The  earliest 
are  easily  designated  by  the  premature  decay  of  the  tops. 

The  varieties  may  also  be  increased  from    tlie  seed  bv 


168  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

hybridizing,  or  impregnating  the  pistils  of  one  flower  by  the 
pollen  from  another ;  and  in  this  "way,  some  of  the  best  and 
most  valuable  kinds  have  been  procured.  Such  as  haA'e  no 
flowers  are  more  productive  of  tubers,  as  there  is  no  expendi- 
ture of  vitality  in  forming  the  seed.  They  may  be  compelled 
to  flower,  by  removing  the  small  tubers  from  the  roots  as 
they  form. 

The  best  Soil  for  Potatoes  is  a  rich  loam,  neither  too 
wet  nor  too  dry.  Cool  and  moist  soils,  like  those  of  Maine, 
Nova  Scotia  and  Ireland,  and  especially,  if  in  rich,  fresh  sod, 
give  the  best  flavored  potatoes,  and  such  as  are  the  least 
liable  to  disease.  A  calcareous  soil  yields  good  potatoes, 
and  generally  sure  crops,  and  Avhere  there  is  little  lime  in  the 
soil,  it  should  be  added.  Ashes,  salt  and  gypsum  are  excel- 
lent manures,  and  in  certain  instances,  have  astonishingly 
increased  the  product.  Crushed  bones  also  greatly  improve 
a  potato  soil.  Fresh  manures  will  often  affect  the  taste  of 
the  potato  unpleasantly,  and  when  necessary  to  apply  them, 
they  should  be  scattered  broadcast  and  plowed  in. 

Select  such  seed  as  experience  has  decided  is  best  adapted 
to  the  soil,  and  the  use  for  which  they  are  to  be  appropriated. 
Some  are  careful  to  cultivate  the  most  mealj^  for  the  table, 
and  plant  those  which  give  the  greatest  yield  for  their  cat- 
tle. This  is  sometimes  mistaken  policy,  as  what  are  best 
for  man,  are  generally  best  for  cattle  ;  and  although  the 
farmer  may  get  a  much  greater  weight  and  bulk,  on  a  given 
quantity  of  land  of  one  kind,  these  may  yield  a  less  quantity 
of  fat  and  flesh-forming  materials,  than  those  afforded  by  a 
smaller  quantity  of  some  other  variety.  Experiment  has 
shouTa,  that  of  "  three  varieties  grown  in  Scotland,  in  1842, 
ih.e  cups  gave  13|  tons  per  acre,  containing  2 -,\  tons  of 
starch;  the  red  dons  yielded  14i,  tons  and  Ifo  of  starch  ;  the 
white  dons,\'a\  tons, and  2iV  of  starch,  and  the  kidney  has 
even  given  as  much  as  32  per  cent,  of  staroli." — [Johnston.) 

There  is  also  a  difl^erence  in  the  relative  proportions  ol 
gluten.  The  potato  contains  in  its  new  and  ripe  state,  about 
2\  per  cent.,  which  diminishes  by  long  keeping.  It  is  im- 
portant for  this,  as  for  an  indefinite  number  of  other  practical 
matters,  to  have  agricultural  laboratories  of  unquestionable 
rehability,  where  the  errors  of  superficial  observation  may 
be  detected  ;  and  where  the  real  superiority  of  one  product 
over  another,  and  theii  variations  induced  by  soils,  manures 
and  treatment,  may  be  established  beyond  the  possibility  of 
a  doubt. 


ROOTS.  16> 

Planting. — To  produce  abundantly,  potatoes  re([uire  a 
fertile  soil,  and  if  not  already  sufficiently  rich,  spread  manure 
on  the  surface  before  plowing.  If  a  tough  sod,  plow  the 
preceding  fall  ;  or  if  friable,  it  may  be  done  just  before  plant- 
ino" ;  but  in  all  cases,  the  land  must  be  put  in  such  condition 
as  to  be  perfectly  loose  and  mellow.  Hills  are  the  most  con- 
venient for  tillage,  as  they  admit  of  more  thorough  stirring  of 
the  ground  with  tlie  cultivator  or  plow.  Medium  size,  uncut 
potatoes  have  been  ascertained,  from  numerous  experiments, 
to  be  the  best  for  planting,  but  when  seed  is  scarce,  it  is 
sometimes  economical  to  divide  them.  Two  potatoes  should 
be  placed  in  each  hill ;  or  if  in  drills,  they  should  be  planted 
singly,  ten  inches  apart.  The  distance  both  of  hills  and 
drills  must  depend  on  the  strength  of  the  soil  and  the  size  of 
the  tops,  some  varieties  growing  much  larger  than  others. 
Cover  with  light  mold  to  the  depth  of  fom"  or  six  inches, 
and  if  the  soil  be  light,  leave  the  ground  perfectly  level  ;  if 
cold,  heavy  or  moist,  let  the  hill  be  raised  when  finished. 
Subsoil  plowing  is  of  great  benefit  to  potatoes,  as  to  most 
other  crops,  whenever  the  soil  will  justify  its  use.  The  sets 
cut  from  the  seed-end,  give  a  much  earlier  crop  than  those 
from  the  root. 

Cultivation. — When  the  shoots  tirst  appear  above  the 
ground,  run  the  plow  through  them  and  throw  the  earth 
well  to  the  plants  ;  and  no  injury  results,  if  the  tops  are  par- 
tially, or  even  entirely  covered.  The  hoe  is  scarcely  required, 
except  to  destroy  such  weeds  as  may  have  escaped  the 
plow.  The  ground  should  be  several  times  stirred  before  the 
tops  interfere  with  the  operation,  but  never  after  they  come 
mto  blossom.  Very  large  crops  have  been  produced  by  top- 
dressing  with  compost,  or  well- rotted  chip  manure,  soon 
after  the  plants  make  their  appearance.  This  is  carried  to 
the  field  and  spread  from  a  light,  one  horse  cart,  the  wheels 
passing  between  the  rows  ;  but  the  same  results  would  pro- 
bably be  attained,  by  placing  the  land  in  the  best  condition 
before  planting,  if  followed  by  the  nicest  cultivation  after- 
wards. There  is  some  gain  to  the  crop,  when  the  buds  are 
plucked  before  they  come  into  blossom. 

Harvesting  and  Storing  should  not  be  commenced  until 
the  tops  are  mostly  dead,  as  the  tuber  has  not  arrived  at  full 
maturity  before  this  time.  They  may  then  be  thrown  out 
of  the  hills  by  a  double  mold-board  plow,  or  by  a  potato 
hook,  or  some  other  hand  implement.  They  ought  not  to  be 
exposed  to  the  .«un  for  any  length  of  time,  but  may  dry  on 
8 


170  AMEillCAN     iGRlCULTUKE. 

the  surface  in  u.  cloudy  day,  or  be  gathered  intc  sm&J  nenps, 
with  some  of  the  tops  spread  over  them,  until  freed  from  the 
surface  moisture,  when  the}''  may  be  stored.  Thost;  selected 
for  seed,  should  be  placed  in  small  piles  in  the  field  ;  or  in  thin 
layers  in  a  cool,  dry  place  in  the  cellar,  where  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded and  no  heating'  or  injui-y  can  occur.  Those  intended 
for  winter  consumption, may  be  put  in  dry  bins  or  barrels  in 
the  store-room,  and  covered  with  straw  and  dry  sand,  or  loose 
earth,  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  air.  Such  as  are  not 
wanted  till  the  following  spring,  may  be  kept  on  the  field,  if 
there  be  not  sufficient  room  in  the  cellars.  It  is  better  Avhen 
thus  stored,  that  they  occupy  an  excavation  on  the  north 
side  of  a  hill,  iu  a  porous  soil.  If  shaded  by  trees,  it  will 
lend  to  shield  them  longer  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  they 
may  thus  be  kept  till  Jmie,  before  opening.  They  are  gen- 
erally stored  in  the  level  field,  in  an  excavation  one  or  two 
feet  deep,  four  or  five  wide,  and  of  any  length  required. 
They  are  piled  as  high  as  they  can  be  conveniently  ridged  up, 
then  covered  with  straw,  carefully  placed  over  them  like 
shingles  on  a  house,  and  covered  lightly  with  earth  till  the 
severe  frosts,  when  they  should  be  adequately  covered  to 
protect  them  from  rains  and  frost  during  winter.  A  partial 
heating  and  sweating  take  place  soon  after  storing,  and  till 
this  is  complete,  a  loose  covering  of  straw  is  all  they  re- 
quire. A  ditch  lower  than  the  base  must  encircle  the  heap 
when  the  soil  consists  of  clay,  from  which  dn  outlet  conducts 
away  all  the  water,  as  any  left  upon  them  will  inevitably 
produce  decay. 

Diseases. — The  potato  has  long  been  subject  to  the  curl. 
From  nvimerous  experiments  made  in  Scotland  to  a'void  this 
disease,  it  has  been  found,  that  seed  from  potatoes  which 
■were  gathered  before  fully  ripe,  gave  a  much  better  and 
surer  crop.  It  would  be  well  to  try  the  experiment  in  this 
country'',  where  there  is  any  deficiency  of  product  from  want 
of  full  and  healthy  development.  Potatoes  are  also  affected 
by  the  scab  and  gruh,  against  whose  attacks  there  is  no 
remedy,  unless  in  a  change  of  seed  and  locality. 

The  rot  has  for  scA^eral  years  produced  serious  and  in 
creasing  injury  to  the  potato  crop,  threatening  starvation  in 
Ireland,  and  causing  great  loss  and  suffering  in  several  otiiei 
coimtries  in  Europe.  Its  effects  have  also  been  extensively 
felt  in  the  United  States.  Numerous  and  scientific  examina- 
tions have  been  made  on  Jhe  subject.  The  proximate  cause 
'■s  supposed  to  be  a  fungus,  but  what  are  the  reasons  for  it» 


ROOTS.  171 

late  rapid  extensicn,  and  .he  remedy  for  its  ravages,  have  not 
yet  been  satisfaclorily  ascertained. 

Preventives  of  Rot. — Under  the  following  circumstances  rot 
has  not  appeared,  when  adjoining  fields  have  been  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  it.  1.  By  using  unripe  seed,  or  seed  which  has 
been  exposed  to  the  sun,  light  and  air,  and  well  dried  for  ten 
days  after  digging,  and  afterwards  stored  in  a  dry  place  in 
small  parcels,  where  air  is  excluded  till  the  moment  of  plant- 
ing. 2.  By  the  use  of  lime,  some  of  which  is  placed  in  the 
hill  and  the  potatoes  dvisted  with  it,  and  also  from  the  use  of 
charcoal  and  salt,  gypsum  or  other  salts.  3.  By  the  absence 
of  fresh  barn-yard  maniu'e,  or  if  used,  by  adding  largely  of 
lime  or  saline  manures.  4.  The  use  of  fresh  sod,  which  has 
long  been  untilled.  This  has  been  found  more  efficacious 
than  any  other  preventive,  although  it  has  occasionally  failed. 
The  sod  may  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  or  lefc  till  late  in  May 
or  early  in  June,  when  it  has  a  good  coating  of  grass; 
then  turn  over  the  ground  and  furrow  it  lightly,  to  receive 
the  seed  without  disturbing  the  sod.  Or  they  may  be  planted 
by  using  a  sharpened  stake  three  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  pin 
or  shoulder  ten  inches  from  the  bottom,  on  which  the  foot  may 
be  placed  for  sinking  the  holes.  These  should  be  made  be- 
tween the  furrow  slices  at  the  proper  distance  for  drills,  and 
a  single  potato  placed  in  each,  which  may  be  covered  with 
the  heel.  5.  Sound,  early  varieties,  early  planted,  have  also 
escaped.  I  have  thus  secured  a  good  yield,  almost  wholly 
■free  from  disease  ;  and  even  those  affected  did  not  appear  to 
commimicate  disease  to  others.  It  has  also  been  found  that 
some  very  late  planted  have  escape!  rot ;  and  if  it  be  an  epi- 
demic, it  may  be,  that  both  by  early  and  late  planting,  the 
peculiar  stage  of  vegetation  when  fhe  fungus  appears,  is  in  a 
great  measure  avoided.  But  tiie  investigations  on  this  impor- 
tant subject  are  still  in  their  infa?^cy,  and  nothing  has  thus 
far  been  ascertained,  which  can  \*'^.  justly  considered  as  hav- 
ing determined  principles  of  univfir.sal  application;  yet  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  zeal,  intellii>euce  and  general  interest 
which  are  now  combined  for  this  object,  will  ere  long  de- 
tect, what  has  hitherto  evaded  the  severest  scruiiiy  of  scien- 
tific research. 

Arresting  the  disease  has  in  some  iostances  '-leen  su  :cessfi.il. 
by  mowi'ia:  off  the  tops  when  they  arp.  found  defective.  This 
practice  would  be  injurious  to  laealthy  plants,  but  may  be 
adopted,  like  that  of  cutting  grain  when  struck  by  rust,  if  it 
will  secure  even  a  part  of  the  crop.     When  disease  appears 


172  AMI  irCAN    AGR  CULTURE 

in  such  ELS  are  dug,  they  should  be  carefully  sorted  and  the 
sound  ones  well  dried,  then  placed  separately  in  layers  and 
covered  with  ashes,  burnt  clay,  or  fine  dry  mold.  These  act 
as  absorbents  of  moisture,  and  prevent  contagion  from  such 
as  may  be  imperceptibly  affected.  They  may  also  be  cut  in 
slices  and  dried,  or  crushed  and  the  farinaceous  part  ex- 
tracted. By  this  means  the  potato  will  be  made  to  yield 
nearly  all  its  nutriment.  It  is  found  that  this  disease  affects 
the  tissues  (the  nitrogenized  or  albumenous  part)  of  the  potato 
only ;  and  for  this  reason,  potatoes  which  have  not  been 
too  long  or  too  deeply  injured,  will  yield  nearly  their  full 
amount  of  fat  for  animals  or  storch  for  the  manufacturer. 

Uses. — Besides  being  on  almost  indispensable  vegetable 
for  the  table,  potatoes  are  boiled  and  mixed  Avith  flour  or 
bread,  to  which  the,y  impart  a  desirable  moisture  and  an 
agreeable  flavor.  They  are  sliced,  dried  and  ground,  and 
much  used  in  Europe  as  flour,  and  by  the  confectioners  in 
their  various  products.  They  are  also  manufactured  into 
tapioca,  and  when  nicely  prepared,  it  is  scarcely  distinguisha- 
ble from  that  of  the  manioc.  In  all  of  these  and  some 
other  forms,  they  enter  into  consumption  as  human  food. 
They  are  also  used  in  large  quantities  by  the  manufac- 
turers of  starch ;  to  some  extent  for  distilling ;  nnd  in  a 
less  degree  for  making  sugar.  The  refuse  of  tht  pulp,  after 
extracting  the  starch  and  the  liquor  drained  from  it,  are 
used  for  cleansing  Avoolens  and  silks,  which  they  efiect  with- 
out injury  to  the  color.  But  by  far  the  greatest  use  of  pota- 
toes in  this  country,  is  for  stock-feeding.  They  are  eaten 
with  avidity  by  all  the  brute  creation,  either  cooked  or  raw. 
For  cattle  and  sheep,  they  are  equally  nutritious  in  either 
condition.  For  horses,  they  are  improved  by  steaming  or 
baking.  Swine  and  most  poultry  will  subsist  on  them  raw, 
but  will  fatten  on  them  only  when  cooked.  Their  good  ef- 
fects are  much  enhanced  by  mixing  with  meal  when  they  are 
hot,  v.^hich  partially  cooks  it. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO  (.Convolvulus  batatas,  Fig.  4i) 

Is  a  root  of  very  general  growth,  in  the  southern,  and  it  is 
much  cultivated  in  the  middle  sections  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  esculent  for  the  table,  and  it  is 
greadily  eaten,  and  with  great  advantage,  by  every  species  of 
stock. 

Soil. — A  dry,  loamy    soil,  inclining  to  sand,  is  best  fo 
them ;  and  this  should  be  well  manured  with  compost  scatter 
ed  broadcast,  bef  :)re  working  the  ground,  and  thoroughly  pul 
6 


ROOTS. 


173 


verized  by  repeated  plowing  and  harrowing.  It  should 
then  be  thrown  into  beds  four  feet  wide  with  the  plow, 
and  in  the  centre  of  these,  strike  a  light  furrow  to  receive  the 
seed,  if  the  soil  is  dry,  or  plant  it  on  the  surface,  if  moist. 
The  use  of  a  subsoil  plow  in  the  beds  before  being  thrown 
up.  if  of  great  benefit  to  the  plant. 


FiQ.  42. 

Cultivation. — When  the  season  is  sufficiently  long  to 
mature  them,  the  potato  may  be  most  conveniently  planted, 
by  cutting  the  seed  into  slips,  and  laying  them  six  or  eight 
inches  apart  in  the  place  where  they  are  to  mature.  Large 
potatoes  divided  into  pieces  of  a  proper  size,  are  better  for 
seed  than  small  ones  uncut.  These  should  be  covered  about 
two  inches  with  light  mold.  When  they  begin  to  sprout,  the 
plow  may  be  run  close  to  the  rows  on  either  side,  to  remove 
the  earth  and  allow  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun  and  air  to  the 
roots,  and  as  the  plant  advances  in  its  growth,  the  earth  may 
be  gradually  restored  to  them  by  the  plow  and  hoe.  Where 
the  vines  are  so  large  as  to  be  injured  by  the  plow,  the  hoe 
alone  should  be  used.  The  hill  or  drills  may  then  be  made 
broadly  around  the  plants,  hollowing  towards  them,  to  afford 
a  full  bed  of  rich,  mellow  earth,  and  to  retain  the  rain  which 
falls.     They  are  fit  for  scatherino-  when  the  vines  are  dead. 

W  hen  the  .seas  :)n  is  short  or  early  potatoes  are  wanted ,  plapt 


J  74  AMERICAN    AGRICUL  fURE. 

on  a  hot  bed,  i  jlIs  of  warm  manure,  with  a  covering  of  four 
inches  of  fine  mold.  After  splitting  the  potatoes,  place  them 
on  this  and  cover  with  three  inches  of  light  earth.  As  the 
sprouts  appear,  draw  and  transplant  them  after  a  rain,  in 
the  same  manner  as  before  suggested  with  the  roots.  When 
early  vegetated,  a  bushel  of  seed  will,  in  this  manner,  supply 
plants  for  an  acre. 

The  preservation  of  the  Siveet  Potato  thi  jugh  the  tvinter 
is  often  difficult.  A  careful  seclusion  from  air  and  light, 
and  the  absence  of  frost  and  absolute  dryness  seem  to  be 
essential  to  their  preservation.  They  are  frequently  kept, 
by  piling  in  heaps  on  dry  earth,  which  are  siill  more  secure 
with  a  layer  beneath  of  corn  stalks  or  dry  pine  boughs, 
six  or  eight  inches  deep.  On  this,  pack  the  roots  in  piles 
six  feet  in  diameter.  Cover  with  corn  stalks  and  dry  earth, 
and  protect  this  with  a  roof  of  boards,  and  a  ditch  deep  enough 
to  carry  off  all  water.  There  must  be  a  hole  at  the  top,  slight- 
ly stopped  with  straw,  to  permit  the  escape  of  heated  air,  and 
to  preserve  uniformity  of  temperature.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  the  sweet  potato,  -white,  red,  yellow,  &c.  They 
yield  from  200  to  300  bushels  per  acre,  and  under  favorable 
circumstances,  sometimes  double  this  quantity. 

THE    TCJIINEP  (Erassica   rapa). 

The  flat  English  Txirnep  was  introduced  into  this 
country  with  our  English  ancestry,  and  has  ever  since  been 
an  object  of  cultivation.  When  boiled,  it  is  an  agreeable 
vegetable  for  the  table.  Its  principal  value,  however,  is  as  a 
food  for  cattle  and  sheep,  by  which  it  is  eaten  uncooked.  Its 
comparitive  nutritive  properties  are  small ;  but  the  great  bulk 
which  can  be  raised  on  a  given  piece  of  ground,  and  the  fa- 
cility and  economy  of  its  cultivation,  have  always  rendered  it  a 
favorite  with  such  farmers,  as  have  soil  and  stock  adapted 
to  its  profitable  production  and  use. 

The  proper  soil  for  it  is  a  fertile  sand  or  well-drained  loam. 
Any  soil  adapted  to  Indian  corn  will  produce  good  turneps. 
But  it  is  only  on  new  land,  or  freshly-turned  sod,  that  they  are 
most  successful.  An  untilled,  virgin  earth,  with  the  rich  dress- 
ing of  ashes  left  after  the  rece  it  burning  of  accumulated  vege- 
table matter,  and  free  from  weeds  and  insects,  is  the  surest 
and  most  productive  for  a  turnep  crop.  Such  land  needs 
no  manure.  For  a  sward  ground,  or  clover  ley,  there  should 
be  a  heavy  dressing  of  fresh,  unfermented  manure,  before 
plowing. 


ROOTS.  175 

Cultivation. — Turneps  are  sown  from  the  15th  of  .iune 
to  the  1st  of  August.  The  first  give  a  greater  yield  ;  the  last, 
generally  a  sounder  root,  and  capable  of  longer  preservation. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  and  harrowed  immediately  be- 
fore sowing,  as  the  moi.'^ture  of  the  freshly-turned  earth  in- 
sures rapid  germination  of  the  seed,  which  is  of  great  import- 
ance to  get  the  plants  beyond  the  reach  of  insects  as  soon  as 
possible.  They  may  be  sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  one  or 
two  pounds  per  acre,  and  lightly  harrowed,  or  brushed  and 
rolled ;  or  :t  is  better  that  the  seed  be  sown  in  drills,  when  a 
less  quantity  will  suffice.  A  turnep  drill  will  speedily  ac- 
complish the  furrowing,  sowing,  covering  and  rolling  at  a 
single  operation.  The  crop  will  be  materially  assistetl  by  a 
top  dressing  of  lime,  ashes,  and  plaster,  at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
or  20  busliels  of  the  first  two,  and  one  and  a  half  to  three 
bushels  of  the  last  per  acre.  When  the  plants  show  them- 
selves and  the  leaves  are  partially  expanded,  the  cultivator 
or  hoe  may  be  freely  used,  stirring  the  ground  well,  and  ex- 
terminating all  weeds. 

Ruta-Baga  or  Sicedes  Tur?iep. — The  introduction  of 
this  is  comparatively  recent,  and  it  proves  to  be  more  worthy 
of  attention  than  the  English  or  white  turnep.  It  will 
grow  in  a  heavier  soil,  yield  as  well,  give  a  richer  root,  and 
it  has  the  great  advantage  of  keeping  lono-er  in  o-ood  condi- 
tion ;  thus  prolonging  the  winter  food  of  cattle  when  they 
most  need  it. 

Cultivation. — It  is  usually  planted  after  Avheat  or  corn ; 
but  if  a  virgin  soil  or  old  pasture  sward  is  chosen,  it  will 
materially  lessen  its  liability  to  insects  and  other  enemies. 
It  is  generally  sown  in  drills,  about  two  feet  apart  ;  and  on 
heavy  lands,  these  shoula  be  slightly  ridged.  The  plants 
must  be  successively  thinned,  to  prevent  interfering  with  such 
as  are  intended  to  mature,  but  enough  should  remain  to  pro- 
vide for  casualties.  Where  there  is  a  deficiency,  they  may 
be  supplied  by  transplanting  during  showery  weather. 
They^ should  be  left  six  or  eight  inches  apart  m  the  drills, 
The  Swede  turnep  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  requires  either  a 
rich  soil  or  heavy  manuring  ;  though  the  use  of  fresh  ma- 
nures,  has  been  supposed  to  facilitate  the  multiplication  ot 
enemies.  Bones,  ground  and  drilled  in  with  the  seed,  or  a 
dressing  of  lime,  ashes,  gypsum  and  salt,  are  the  best  applica- 
tions that  can  be  made.  The  Swede  should  be  sown  from 
the  20th  May  to  the  15th  June,  and  earlier  than  the  English 
t'lxnep.  as  it  takes  longej  to  mature  ;  and  two  or  three  weeks 


176  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

inort;  of  growth,  frequently  adds  largely  to  the  product.  An 
early  sowing  also  gives  time  to  plant  for  another  crop  in  case 
of  failure  of  the  first. 

Enei7iies. — The  turnep  is  exposed  to  numerous  depreda- 
tors, of  which  the  turnep  flea-beetle  is  the  most  inveterate. 
It  attacks  the  plant  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  expand,  and 
oftei  destroys  two  or  three  successive  sowino-s.  The 
black  caterpillar,  sLigs,  wire-worms,  and  numerous  other 
insects,  grubs  and  aphides  prey  upon  and  greatly  diminish 
the  crop. 

Remedies  have  been  tried  to  an  almost  indefinite  extent, 
but  none  hitherto,  with  more  than  very  partial  success. 
Liberal  sowing  and  rapid  growth  best  insure  the  plant  from 
injury ;  and  to  eflTect  this,  the  seed  should  be  plentifully  sown 
in  a  rich  soil,  and  if  possible,  when  the  ground  is  moist. 
Before  sowing,  the  seed  should  be  steeped  in  some  prepara- 
tion, which  experience  has  shown  will  the  most  quickly  de- 
velop the  germ.  Solutions  of  the  nitrates  or  sulphates, 
urine,  soot-water,  liquid  guano,  or  currier's  oil,  impregnate 
the  first  leaves  with  substances  distasteful  to  their  early  ene- 
mies, and  thus  a  short  respite  from  their  attacks  will  be  se- 
cured. Gypsum,  ashes,  bone-dust  and  poudrette  drilled  in 
with  the  seed,  are  excellent  forcers  for  the  young  roots. 
Charcoal  dust  applied  in  the  same  way,  has  been  found  to 
increase  the  early  growth  from  four  to  ten-fold.  When  the 
fly  or  bug  is  discovered,  the  application  of  lime,  ashes  or 
soot,  or  all  combined,  should  be  made  upon  the  leaves,  while 
the  dew  or  a  slight  moisture  is  on  them.  This  leads  the 
young  plant  along,  and  kills  such  enemies  as  it  reaches. 
Stale  urine,  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  (oil  of  vitrol,)  and  other 
liquid  manures  will  have  the  same  eftect.  Ducks,  chickens, 
young  turkeys  and  birds  will  devour  innumerable  quantities, 
and  their  presence  should  always  be  encouraged  not  only  on 
this,  but  on  most  of  the  fields.  Dragging  the  surface  with 
fine,  light  brush,  will  lessen  the  slugs  aiid  insects.  The 
ground  should  be  plowed  just  before  winter  sets  in,  which 
exposes  the  worms  and  the  larvae  of  insects  to  the  frost, 
when  they  are  unable  to  work  themselves  into  a  place  oi 
safety.  The  seed  should  not  be  planted  on  ground  recently 
occupied  by  any  of  the  order  of  plants  cr«c//er^,  (cabbage, 
radish,  mustard,  charlock  and  water-cress),  as  they  all  afi'ord 
food  for  the  enemies  of  turne]->s,  and  thereby  tend  to  their 
multiplication. 

Harvesting    may  be    defi^rral  till   the   approach  of  cal*5 


ROC  rs.  177 

weather ;  and  in  those  sections  of  the  country  not  affected  by 
severe  frosts,  when  on  dry  soils,  they  may  be  allowed  to  win- 
ter on  the  field.  Otherwise,  they  should  be  pulled  during 
the  clear  autumnal  weather.  This  is  accomplished  most 
expeditiously  with  a  root  hook,  which  is  made  with  two  or 
more  iron  prongs  attached  to  a  hoe-handle.  The  use  of  a 
bill  hook  ->r  sharp  knife  will  enable  the  operator  to  lop  off 
the  leaves  with  a  single  blow,  when  they  are  thrown 
into  convenient  piles,  and  afterwards  collected  for  storage. 

The  Storing  may  be  in  cellars  or  in  heaps,  similar  to  po- 
tatoes, but  in  a  cooler  temperature,  as  slight  heat  injures 
them,  while  frost  does  not.  If  stored  in  heaps,  one  or  more 
holes  should  be  left  at  the  top,  which  may  be  partially 
stopped  by  a  wisp  of  hay  or  straw,  to  allow  the  escape  of 
the  gases  which  are  generated. 

The  feeding  of  Muta-Bagas  to  cattle  and  ^Zfeejo  is  always 
in  their  uncooked  state.  They  arc  better  steamed  or  boiled 
for  swine  ;  but  food  for  these,  should  be  sought  from  the 
more  fattening  products  of  the  farm.  They  may  be  fed  to 
horses  in  moderate  quantities,  but  they  cannot  be  relied  upon 
for  them,  as  they  are  too  bulky  for  working  animals.  Their 
place  is  much  better  supplied  for  horses,  by  the  carrot  or 
potato.  Their  true  value  is  as  food  for  store  and  fattening 
cattle,  milch  cows  and  sheep,  as  they  furnish  a  salutary 
change  from  dry  hay  ;  being  nearly  equivalent  as  fodder,  to 
green  summer  food.  They  should  be  washed  before  feeding, 
if  too  much  dirt  adheres  to  them  ;  but  if  grown  on  a  light 
soil,  the  tap  roots  lopped  off,  and  otherwise  properly  cleaned, 
they  will  not  reqviire  it.  They  may  be  sliced  with  a  heavy 
knife,  or  more  summarily  cut  up  while  lying  on  the  barn- 
floor,  with  a  sharp  spade,  or  root  sheer,  which  is  made  with 
a  socket  handle  and  two  blades  crossing  each  other  in  the 
centre  at  right  angles,  or  by  some  of  the  numerous  improved 
cutting  machines.  With  an  abundance  of  turneps  and  a 
small  supply  of  stra^v,  hay  may  be  entirely  dispensed  with 
for  cattle  and  sheep,  except  during  very  cold  weather. 
Many  of  the  best  English  breeds,  are  kept  exclusively  on 
turneps  with  a  little  straw,  till  ready  for  the  shambles. 

The  varieties  of  turneps  are  numerous.  After  selecting 
such  as  will  give  the  largest  crop  of  the  most  nutritous  roots, 
the  next  object  in  the  choice  of  particular  varieties,  should 
be  to  adapt  them  to  the  most  economical  use.  Some  will 
keep  much  longer  than  others,  and  if  wanted  to  feed  late  in 
the  ssasoK,  it  may  be  necessary  t")  take  a  variety,  intrinsically 
8*  / 


178  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

less  valuable  than  another,  which  must  be  earlier  con- 
sumed. The  English  turnep  should  be  first  led,  as  it  soonest 
wilts  and  becomes  pit!  y;  then  follow  with  the  others  accord- 
ing to  their  order  of  maturity  and  decay.  The  leaves  yield 
good  forage,  and  if  unmixed  with  earth  'nay  be  fed  green  or 
dry  to  cattle. 

The  value  of  turneps  to  th.s  country  .s  trifling  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  many  parts  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain 
alone,  this  value  probably  exceeds  one  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  annually.  But  its  culture  here  is  much  less  desirable  ; 
as  our  drier  climate  and  early  and  severe  winters  are  not  as 
well  adapted  to  its  production,  and  economical  preservation 
and  feeding  as  those  of  England,  and  its  numerous  enemies 
render  it  an  uncertain  crop.  These  objections  are  increased 
by  the  important  fact,  that  it  enters  into  competition  with 
Indian  corn,  which  generally  gives  a  certain  and  highly  re- 
munerating return.  It  may  sometimes,  however,  take  the 
place  of  corn  with  advantage  ;  and  the  turnep  or  some  of  the 
other  roots  should  always  occupy  a  conspicuous  place  as  a 
change,  in  part,  for  the  winter  food  of  cattle  and  sheep, 

THE  CAEROT  (D?acu8  carota). 

This  is  one  of  our  mo^t  valuable  roots.  It  is  a  hardy,  easi- 
ly-cultivated plant;  it  grows  in  almost  every  soil,  and  is  next 
to  the  potato  in  its  nutritive  properties. 

The  soil  which  best  suits  it  is  a  fertile  sand  or  light  loam; 
but  it  will  grow  on  such  as  are  more  tenacious,  if  well 
drained,  and  deeply  worked.  The  success  of  this  and  the 
parsnep,  depends  much  on  the  depth  to  which  their  roots 
can  reach.  Deep  spading  or  subsoil  plowing  is,  therefore, 
mdisp&nsable  to  secure  large  crops,  and  the  ground  should 
be  thoroughly  pulverized.  Barnyard  manures,  composted 
with  the  ditTerent  salts  or  ashes,  or  chip  dung,  are  best  for 
them.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  manures  well  rotted,  for 
the  double  object  of  killing  obnoxious  seeds,  and  mixing  in- 
tunately  with  the  soil. 

The  varieties  chiefly  %ised  for  field  culture  are  the  long 
red,  the  orange,  and  white  Belgian.  The  last,  under  favora- 
ble circumstances,  attains  huge  dimensions ;  and  from  its 
roots  growing  high  out  of  the  ground,  it  is  supposed  to  draw 
more  of  its  nourishment  from  the  air,  and  consequently,  to 
exhaust  the  ground  less,  while  it  is  more  easily  harvested. 
But  it  is  conside»-ably  below  the  others  in  comparative 
value 


ROOTS.  179 

Planting. — The  carrot  should  be  sown  in  drills,  16  to  20 
Inches  apart,  when  the  ground  has  become  warm  and  dry. 
The  seed  is  best  prepared  by  mixing  with  fine  mold  or  pou- 
drette,  and  stiiring  it  well  together  to  break  off  the  fine 
beards ;  then  sprinkle  with  water  and  allow  it  to  remain  in 
a  warm  place,  and  occasionally  turn  it  to  produce  equal  de- 
velopment in  the  seed.  It  may  remain  10  or  15  davs  before 
sowing,  and  till  nearly  ready  to  sprout.  It  then  readily  germi- 
nates, and  does  not  allow  the  weeds  to  get  the  start.  The 
frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  and  entire  cleanliness  from 
weeds,  are  all  that  is  necessary  to  insure  a  crop  ;  unless  it 
be  convenient  to  give  it  a  top  dressing  of  liquid  manure, 
which  the  Flemings  always  do,  and  which  no  crop  better 
repays.  Two  pounds  of  good  seed  will  sow  an  acre.  Any 
deficiency  of  plants  may  be  supplied  by  transplanting  in 
moist  weather.  Six  inches  is  near  enough  for  the  smaller 
kind  to  stand,  and  eight  for  the  larger.  They  are  subject  to 
few  diseases  or  enemies,  excepting  such  as  can  be  avoided 
by  judicious  selection  of  soil  and  careful  tillage. 

The  harvesting  may  be  facilitated  by  running  a  plow  on 
one  side  of  the  rows,  when  the  roots  are  easily  removed  by 
hand.  The  tops  are  then  cut  and  the  surface  moisture  upon 
the  roots  dried,  when  they  may  be  stored  like  turneps  and 
potatoes.  They  ought  to  be  kept  at  as  low  a  temperature  as 
possible,  yet  above  tlie  freezing  point.  On  the  approach  of 
warm  weather,  they  will  spxout  early  if  left  in  heaps ;  and  if 
important  to  preserve  them  longer,  the  crown  should  be  cut 
off  and  the  roots  spread  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

Uses. — Carrots  are  chiefly  grown  for  domestic  stock. 
Horses  thrive  remarkably  on  them,  and  some  judicious 
farmers  feed  them  as  a  substitute  for  oats.  But  their  intrin- 
sic value  in  weight,  for  their  fat  and  flesh-forming  properties, 
is  less,  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  to  one.  For  their 
medicinal  properties,  however,  and  the  healthful  effects  re- 
sulting from  their  regular,  but  moderate  use,  they  would  be 
advantageously  purchased  at  the  same  price  as  oats,  or  even 
corn,  if  they  could  be  procured  no  cheaper.  They  are  good 
for  working  cattle,  and  unsurpassed  for  milch  cows,  produ- 
cmg  a  great  flow  of  milk,  and  a  rich  yellow  cream.  Sheep 
and  swine  greedily  devour  them,  and  soon  fatten,  if  plenti- 
fully supplied.  The  Dutch  sometimes  grate  them,  and  with 
siigar  and  salt,  make  a  pickle  Or  their  choicest  table  butter 
They  are  also  employed  in  distilling.  The  average  yield, 
on  good  land,  may  be  estimated   at  about  .300  bushels  of  tha 


180  AilERICAN   AGRICULTtTRB. 

smaller,  and  450  of  the  Belgian  or  white,  pur  acre  ;  but 
with  extra  cu.'ivation,  1,000  bushels  of  the  last  have  been 
raised. 

THE  PARSNEP  cPastitiaca  sativa). 

The  parsnep  is  frequently  cultivated  as  a  field  crop,  and  il 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  carrot  in  its  value.  The  soil  may  ht 
heavier  for  par  sneps  than  for  carrots,  and  they  will  even 
thrive  on  a  strong  clay,  if  rich,  well  pulverized  and  dry. 
Large  crops  can  only  be  obtained  on  deeply  fertile  and  well 
pulverized  soil.  They  should  be  sown  early,  as  frosts  do 
not  affect  them,  and  they  require  a  long  time  to  come  to  ma- 
turity. Drilling,  at  a  distance  of  20  inches  apart,  is  the 
proper  mode  of  planting,  and  they  should  be  thinned  to  a 
space  of  six  or  eight  inches.  It  requires  four  or  five  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre,  Avhich  must  be  of  the  previous  year's  growth, 
as  older  does  not  readily  vegetate.  No  preparation  of  the 
seed  is  necessary.  The  subsequent  cultivation  is  similar  to 
that  of  carrots,  and  they  will  generally  yield  more  under  the 
same  circumstances  of  soil  and  tillage.  They  are  little  sub- 
ject to  disease  or  enemies. 

The  best  variety  for  field  culture,  is  the  Isle  of  Jersey. 
The  gathering  should  be  deferred  till  the  following  spring, 
unless  wanted  for  u'inter's  use  ;  as  they  keep  best  in  the 
ground,  where  they  are  uninjured  by  the  intensest  frost. 
But  particular  care  must  be  observed  in  allowing  no  stand- 
ing water  on  them,  or  they  will  rot.  When  taken  up  in  the 
fall,  the  roots  should  neither  be  trimmed  nor  broken,  nor 
should  the  tops  be  cut  too  near  the  root.  They  must  be 
stored  in  a  cool  place  and  covered  carefully  with  earth,  as 
exposure  to  air  or  even  moderate  heat  wilts  them. 

Uses. — The  parsnep  is  one  of  our  most  delicious  table 
vegetables.  It  is  an  excellent  food  for  swine,  either  raw  or 
cooked,  and  for  cattle,  milch  cows  and  sheep,  it  is  highly 
prized.  Qualey  says,  "it  is  not  as  valuable  for  horses,  for 
though  it  produces  fat  and  a  fine  appearance,  it  causes  them 
to  sweat  profusel}^ ;  and  if  eaten  when  the  shoot  starts  in 
the  spring,  it  produces  inflamation  in  the  eyes  and  epiphora, 
or  weeping."  The  leaves  of  both  carrots  and  parsneps  are 
good  for  cattle,  either  green  or  dried.  Gerarde,  who  wrote 
in  1593,  says,  "an  excellent  bread  was  made  from  them  in 
his  time."  They  have  also,  like  the  carrot,  been  used  for 
distillation,  and  are  said  to  affo-d  a  very  good  vinous  beverage 


ROOTS  181 

THE  BEET   (Beta). 

Thero  are  but  two  varieties  of  the  beet  in  general  usefoi 
the  field,  thz  Sugar  beet  and  Mangold-wicrzel,  both  of 
which  have  several  sub-varieties.  They  are  of  various 
colors,  red,  pink,  yellow,  white  or  mottled,  but  color  does 
not  seem  to  affect  their  quality.  The  conditions  under 
which  they  grow  are  similar.  Beets  do  well  in  any  soil  of 
sufficient  depth  and  fertility,  but  they  are  perhaps,  most  par- 
tial to  a  strong  loam.  If  well  tilled,  they  will  produce  large 
crops  on  a  tenacious  clay.  We  have  raised  at  the  rate  of 
800  bushels  per  acre,  on  a  stiff  clay,  which  had  been  well 
supplied  with  unfermented  manure.  The  soil,  camaot  be 
made  too  rich  ;  and  for  such  as  are  adhesive,  fresh  or  un- 
fermented manures  are  much  the  best. 

The  planting  should  be  in  drills,  20  to  24  inches  asunder, 
at  the  rate  of  four  to  six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  buried  not 
over  an  inch  deep.  The  seed  should  be  early  planted,  or  as 
soon  as  vegetation  will  proceed  rapidly ;  but  it  mu.st  first  be 
soaked,  by  pouring  soft,  scalding  water  on  it,  allowing  it  to 
cool  to  blood  heat,  and  remain  for  one  or  two  days,  then 
roll  in  plaster  and  drill  it  in.  The  husk  of  the  seed  is  thick 
and  scarcely  pervious  to  moisture,  and  without  previous  tho- 
rough saturation  the  seed  will  not  readily  germinate. 

TJie  culture  is  similar  to  that  of  carrots  and  parsneps. 
They  should  be  thinned  to  a  distance  of  about  eight  inches, 
and  all  vacancies  filled  with  strong  thrifty  plants.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  sow  thick  enough  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  transplant- 
ing, for  in  addition  to  the  time  and  expense  of  this  operation, 
the  new  plants  will  not  thrive  as  well  as  those  which  grow 
in  their  ranks  from  the  seed.  The  above  distances  are  suit- 
able for  the  sugar  beet.  The  mangold-wurzel  attains  a  larger 
size,  and  the  spaces  may  be  increased.  The  practice  of 
plucking  off  the  leaves  for  cattle-feeding,  is  objectionable,  as 
it  materially  interferes  with  the  growth  of  the  plants. 
Scarcely  any  disease  or  enemy  troubles  it,  except  when 
young.  It  is  then  sometimes,  though  rarely,  attacked  by 
grubs  or  small  insects. 

Harvesting  may  be  commenced  soon  after  the  first  leaves 
turn  yellow,  and  before  the  frosts  have  injured  them.  The 
tops  must  not  be  too  closely  trimmed,  nor  the  crown  of  the 
roots  or  its  fibrous  prongs  cut  from  such  as  are  destined  for 
iate  keeping.  If  intended  for  early  winter  use,  they  maybe 
abrid{jed  a  trifle,  and  af ter  i  he  surface  is  d'y,  stored  like  othe-» 


182  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

roots  They  do  not  need  as  effectual  protection  as  potatoes  ; 
for  if  the  frost  reaches  them  under  a  covering  of  earth,  it 
will  gradually  nitlidraw  on  the  approach  of  Avarm  weather, 
and  leave  the  roots  uninjured;  but  they  will  not  keep  as 
long  as  ff  untouched  by  the  frost.  A  slight  opening  for  the 
escape  of  the  gas,  as  with  other  roots,  should  be  left  at  the 
top,  and  partially  guarded  with  straw. 

Uses. — The  beet  is  a  universal  favorite  for  the  table,  and 
of  great  value  for  stock.  Domestic  animals  never  tire  of  it, 
and  swine  prefer  it  to  any  other  root  excepting  the  parsnep. 
I  have  kept  a  large  herd  in  the  best  condition  through  the 
winter,  on  no  other  food  thai^  the  rav/  sugar  beet.  They 
possess  additional  merit,  from  their  capa>>ility  of  resisting 
decay  longer  than  the  turnep,  and  frequently  beyond  the 
carrot  and  parsnep.  They  will  be  solid,  fresh  and  juicy, 
late  in  the  spring,  if  properly  stored  ;  and  at  a  time  too  when 
they  are  most  wanted  for  ailing  sheep  or  cattle,  milch  cows 
or  ewes,  or  for  contri  ^ning  to  the  support  and  health  of  any 
of  the  farm  stock. 

When  fed  to  fattening  animals,  they  should  follow,  and 
never  precede  the  turnep.  It  has  been  found,  that  animals 
continue  steadily  to  advance  in  flesh,  after  being  carried  to  a 
certain  point  with  turneps,  if  shifted  on  to  the  beet  ;  but  in 
repeated  instances,  they  have  fallen  back,  if  changed  from 
beets  to  turneps. 

Davy  found  in  1,000  parts,  the  following  quantity  of  nu- 
Iritive  or  soluble  matter. — AVhite  or  English  turnips,  42; 
Swede,  64 ;  mangold-wurzel,  136;  sugar  beet,  146.  This 
order  of  nutritive  quality  is  followed  by  Boussinjrault,  though 
he  places  the  field  beet  and  Swede  turnep,  at  nearly  the 
same  point.  Einhof  and  Thaer,  on  the  contrary,  place  the 
Swede  before  mangold-wurzel.  But  in  feeding  to  animals, 
unless  for  an  occasional  change,  the  roots  should  be  given  out 
in  the  order  named. 

The  sugar  beet  is  seen  to  be  more  nutritious  than  the 
Jtiangold-wurzel ;  it  is  equally  hardy  and  productive,  and 
more  palatable  to  stock,  and  of  course  is  to  be  preferred  as  a 
farm  crop.  The  former  has  been  largely  cultivated  in  France 
and  Germany,  for  making  into  sugar,  where  it  has  been  en- 
tirely successful,  because  protected  by  an  adequate  impost 
on  the  imported  article.  Their  conversion  into  sugar,  has 
repeatedly  been  attempted  in^  this  country,  but  it  cannot 
sustain  a  sue  jessful  competition  with  the  sugar  cane. 

From  tl  e  experiments  of  Darracq,  it  has  been  found  that 


ROOTS  183 

in  summer, the  beet  yielded  from  85  lo  4  per  cent,  of  sugar; 
but  in  October,  after  the  commencement  of  frost,  it  gave 
only  syrup  and  saltpetre,  and  no  crystalizable  sugar.  When 
used  for  this  purpose,  the  residiuim  of  the  pulp,  after  ex- 
pressing the  juice,  is  given  to  cattle.  When  wilted,  the 
leaves  are  also  fed  to  them,  but  caution,  and  the  use  of  dry 
food  in  connection,  is  necessary  to  prevent  their  scouring. 
What  are  not  thus  used,  are  plowed  in  for  manure.  The 
beet  is  also  distilled  prnd  yield.'-  ibout  half  the  product  of 
potatoes. 


NOTE. 

On  the  following  pages,  I  append  the  table  of  nutritive 
equivalents  of  food,  compiled  by  Boussingault,  as  a  conve- 
nient refereiace,  though  not  entirely  reliable  in  all  cases.  For 
it  will  be  seen,  from  what  has  before  been  said,  that  the  par- 
ticular plants,  vary,  not  only  according  to  the  season  and 
soil,  but  frequently  also,  according  to  the  particular  variety, 
subject  to  analysis.  He  says  :  "  In  the  following  table,  to 
the  numbers  assigned  by  the  theory,  I  have  added  those  of 
the  whole,  which  I  find  in  the  entire  series  of  observations 
that  have  come  to  my  knowledge.  I  have  also  given  the 
standard  quantity  of  water,  and  the  quantity  of  azote,  con- 
tained in  each  species  of  food.  W^hen  tlie  theoretical  equi- 
valents do  not  differ  too  Avidelyfrom  those  supplied  by  direct 
observation,  I  believe  that  they  ought  to  be  preferred.  The 
details  of  my  experiments,  and  the  precautions  needful  ni 
entering  on,  and  carrying  them  through,  must  have  satisfied 
every  one  of  the  difficulties  attending  their  conduct ;  yet  all 
allow  how  little  these  have  been  attentively  contemplated, 
and  Avhat  slender  measures  of  precaution  against  error  have 
been  taken.  In  my  opinion,  direct  observation  or  experi- 
ment is  indispensable,  but  mainly,  solely  as  a  means  of 
checking,  withi::  rather  wile  limits,  the  results  of  chemical 
analysis," 


184 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


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IB6  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


THE  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  (Helianthns  tnberosns). 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  but  it  has  hitherto  been 
little  cultivated  in  this  country.  Loudon  says  the  name  Jeru- 
Balem  is  a  corruption  of  the  Italian  word  girasole,  (sun- 
flower), the  blossom  of  which  it  closely  resembles,  except 
in  size.  It  fiorurishes  in  a  moist,  loose  soil  or  sandy  loam, 
with  little  care  except  to  thin  out  the  plants  and  prevent 
weeds.  It  is  hardy,  very  productive  and  easily  cultiva- 
ted in  drills,  three  or  four  feet  apart.  The  planting  may  be 
done  in  March  or  April.  As  it  is  not  injured  by  frost  and 
is  prolific,  it  will  spread  rapidly  and  often  becomes  a  nui- 
sance in  the  garden.  The  product  is  enormous,  sometimes 
overrumiing  2,000  bushels  per  acre.  Its  nutritive  qualities 
are  much  less  than  those  of  the  potato  ;  but  its  greater  pro- 
ductiveness and  the  facility  of  raising  it,  ^vould  seem  to  en- 
title it  to  more  g-^neral  favor.  Boussingault  considers  it  an 
improving  and  profitable  crop,  from  its  drawing  its  nitrogen 
largely  from  the  atmosphere.  It  is  pecuiiarlj^  fitted  for 
spring  food,  as  the  fodts  lie  uninjured  by  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  weather,  and  may  be  taken  out  in  perfection  after  most 
other  roots  are  gone. 

The  artichoke  is  used  in  this  country,  both  for  human  and 
animal  food.  The  roots  are  generally  eaten  as  a  pickle  or 
salad.  Loudon  says,  "  they  may  also  be.eaten  boiled,  mashed 
in  butter,  or  baked  in  pies,  and  have  an  excellent  flavor." 
The  tops  when  cut  and  cured  as  hay,  afford  a  good  fodder 
for  cattle,  and  the  roots  are  excellent  for  sheep  and  other 
stock.  Swine  will  thrive  upon  them  through  the  winter, 
and  do  their  own  harvesting  wien  the  ground  is  not  locked 
up  by  frost. 


3R00M   CORN.  187 


CHAPTER   X. 

mSCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS  OF  CULTIVATION 

'       BROOM    COHN  (Sorghum  saccharatnm). 

So  far  as  I  am  acquainted  with  its  history,  this  is  a  pro- 
duct peculiar  to  America.  In  its  early  growth  and  general 
appearance,  it  resembles  Indian  corn.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  with  a  perfectly  upright  stalk, 
from  which  an  occasional  leaf  appears ;  and  at  the  top,  a 
long  compact  bunch  of  slender,  graceful  stems  is  thrown  out, 
familiarly  termed  the  brush,  which  sustain  the  seed  at  and 
near  their  extremities. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  broom  corn,  is  similar  to  that 
required  for  Indian  corn  or  maize.  It  should  be  rich, 
warm,  loamy  land,  not  liable  to  early  or  late  frosts.  Spring 
frosts  injure  broom  corn  more  than  maize,  as  the  roots  do 
not  strike  so  deep,  nor  has  it  the  power  of  recovering  from 
ne  effects  of  frost  equally  with  the  latter.  The  best  crops  are 
..sually  raised  on  a  green  s"ward,  turned  over  as  late  as  possi- 
ble in  the  fall,  to  kill  the  Avorms.  Clay  lands  are  not  suita- 
ble for  it. 

M.anure. — Horse  or  sheep  manure  is  the  best  for  this 
plant  ;  and  if  mixed  with  much  straw  or  other  vegetables, 
they  shovild  be  well  rotted  before  applying.  If  the  land  is 
in  good  condition,  three  cords  or  eight  to  ten  loads  to  the 
acre,  is  enough  for  one  dressing.  This  is  usually  placed  in 
hills,  and  12  to  15  bushels  of  ashes  per  acre  may  be  added 
with  great  advantage.  Plaster,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four 
bushels  per  acre,  is  also  beneficial.  The  addition  of  slacked 
lime  helps  the  ground,  affords  some  food  to  the  crop,  and  is 
destructive  to  worms.  Poudrette,  at  the  rate  of  half  a 
pint  to  each  hill  at  planting,  or  Peruvian  guano  at  the  rate 
of  a  table-spoonful  mixed  in  a  compost  with  ten  times  its 
quantity  of  good  soil,  is  an  excellent  application,  especially  it 
the  land  is  not  already  rich  enough.  Repeating  the  above 
quantities  awund  the  stalks  in  each  hill,  after  the  last  hoeing, 
v^ill  add  materially  to  the  crop. 


188  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Planting. — Broom  corn  should  be  planted  in  hills  two  feel 
apart,  in  rows  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  distant.  If  the  seed 
is  good,  drop  15  to  20  seeds  in  a  hill,  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  to 
ensure  eight  or  ten  thrifty  plants,  which  are  all  that  must  be 
left  after  the  second  hoeing.  The  time  of  planting  must  de- 
pend on  the  climate  and  season.  The  1st  of  May  is  about 
the  time  in  latitude  40°,  ■and  10th  to  lothin42'^;  but  let  it  be 
as  early  as  possible,  yet  late  enough  to  escape  spring  frost. 
Mellow  the  ground  well  with  a  harrow  before  putting  in  the 
seed.     Thick  planting  gives  the  finest,  toughest  Iwush. 

After  Culture. — As  soon  as  the  plants  are  visible,  run  a 
ctiltivator  between  the  rows,  and  follow  \vith  a  hand  hoe. 
Many  neglect  this  till  the  weeds  get  a  start,  which  is  highly 
prejudicial  to  the  crop.  The  cultivator  or  light  plow  should 
be  used  afterwards,  followed  with  a  hoe,  and  this  may  be 
repeated  four  or  five  times  with  advantage.  Break  the  tops 
before  fuUj^  ripe,  or  when  the  seed  is  a  little  past  the  milk ; 
or  if  frost  appears,  then  immediately  after  it.  This  is 
done  by  bending  down  the  tops  of  two  rows  towards  each 
other,  for  the  convenience  of  cutting  afterAvards.  They  should 
be  broken  some  14  inches  below  the  brush,  and  allowed  to 
hang  till  fully  ripe,  -when  they  may  be  cut  and  carried  un- 
der cover,  and  spread  till  entirely  dry.  The  stalks  remain- 
ing on  the  ground,  may  be  cut  close,  or  pulled  up  and  buried 
in  the  furrows  for  manure,  or  burned,  and  thus  be  restored 
to  the  earth  to  enrich  it ;  or  they  may  be  carried  to  the  yard 
to  mix  in  a  compost,  with  the  droppings  of  the  cattle. 

Cleaning  the  Brush. — Unless  some  larger  machine  is 
used,  this  is  most  rapidly  accomplished  by  passing  it  through 
a  kind  of  hetchel,  made  by  setting  upright  knives  near  to- 
gether, or  it  may  be  cleaned  by  a  long-toothed  currycomb. 
By  the  use  of  the  hetchel,  none  of  the  little  branches  are 
broken,  and  the  brush  makes  a  finer,  better  broom.  We 
have  seen  horse  power  machines  used  for  cleaning  the  seed 
with  great  rapidity,  in  the  Miami  Valley.  The  average 
yield  is  about  500  lbs.  of  brush  per  acre.  It  varies  according 
to  season  or  soil,  from  300  to  1,000  lbs.  The  price  also  va- 
ries materially,  ranging  from  three  to  sixteen  cents  per 
pound ;  the  last  being  seldom  obtained  unless  in  extreme 
scarcity,  A  good  crop  of  seed  is  matured  in  the  Connecti- 
cut Valley,  about  tvv  o  years  out  of  five.  When  well  ripened, 
the  seed  will  average  three  or  four  pounds  for  every 
pound  of  the  brush.  A  single  acre  has  produced  150  bush- 
els of  seed,  though  25  to  50  i«  i  more    common  vield.     It 


189 


weighs  about  50  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  is  usually  sold  at  25 
to  35  cents. 

The  uses  of  Broom  Corn  are  limited  to  the  manufacture 
of  brooms  from  the  brush ;  and  the  consumption  of  the  seed 
when  ground  and  mixed  with  other  grain,  in  feeding  to  fat- 
tening or  working  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  and  occasionally 
to  horses.  Brooms  manufactured  from  it,  have  superseded 
every  other  kind  for  general  use  in  the  United  States,  and 
within  a  few  years,  they  have  become  an  article  of  extensive 
export  to  England  and  other  countries.  The  brush  and  wood 
for  the  handles  are  imported  separately,  to  avoid  high  duties, 
and  are  there  put  together,  and  form  a  profitable  branch  of 
agricultural  commerce  to  those  engaged  in  the  traffic.  The 
cultivation  of  broom  corn  has,  till  quite  recently,  been  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  northeastern  States  ;  but  it  is  now 
largely  raised  in  the  Western.  Their  fresh,  rich  soil,  how- 
ever, does  not  yield  so  fine  and  tough  a  brush  as  that  grown 
in  the  longer  cultivated  fields. 

FLAX  (Linum  usitatissimum,  Fig.  43). 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  plants  of  which  wo 
have  any  record ;  and  its  habitat  or  re- 
gion of  naturalization,  extends  from  the 
torrid  to  the  frigid  zones.  Its  long, 
silken  fibres,  which  come  from  the  outer 
coating  or  bark  of  the  stem,  have  been 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  linen,  from 
time  immemorial.  The  absolute  quanti- 
ty at  present  grow:.,  is  probably  equal 
to  any  preceding  age ;  but  relatively,  it 
is  falling  behind  the  product  of  cotton, 
which  is  rapidly  on  the  increase.  Flax 
is  still  a  profitable  crop,  for  in  addition 
to  its  use  as  a  material  of  clothing,  the 
seed  is  of  great  value  for  its  oil,  and  the 
food  it  yields  to  cattle  ;  and  for  the  latter 
''■"'  '"'■  purpose,  the   whole   plant  is  sometimes 

fed  with  decided  advantage. 

The  proper  soil  for  Flax,  is  a  good  alhivial  or  vegetable 
loam,  equally  removed  from  a  loose  sand  or  tenacious  clay. 
In  a  very  rich  soil,  the  fibres  grow  too  coarse,  and  on  a  poor 
soil,  the  crop  will  not  make  a  profitable  return.  Fresh  barn- 
^'ard  manures  are  not  suited  to  it,  and  they  should,  in  all  casea 
where  necessary  for  a  proper  fertility,  be  added  to  the  pre- 


190  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

ceding  crop.  A  rich  sod  which  has  long  lain  i;:  pasture  or 
meadow,  well  plowed  and  rotted,  is  the  best  for  :t.  Lime  in 
small  quantities,  may  be  incorporated  with  the  soil,  but  the 
Flemings  who  raise  flax  extensively,  never  allow  it  to  follow 
a  heavy  liming  till  seven  years  intervene,  as  they  consider 
it  injures  the  fibre.  A  good  wheat,  is  generally  a  good  flax 
soil.  Salt,  ashes  and  gypsum  are  proper  manures  for  it. 
The  last  has  the  greatest  effect,  if  applied  after  the  plant  is 
developed  and  while  covered  with  dew  or  moisture.  All 
the  saline  manures  used  as  a  top-dressing,  benefit  the  plant 
and  check  the  ravages  of  worms,  which  frequently  attack 
the  young  plants. 

Cultivation. — On  a  finely-prepared  surface,  either  of  fresh 
sod  or  after  corn  or  roots,  w^hich  have  been  well  manured 
and  kept  clear  of  weeds,  sow  broadcast,  from  sixteen  to  thirty 
quarts  per  acre,  if  wanted  for  seed,  or  two  bushels,  if  wanted 
for  the  fibre.  When  thin,  it  branches  very  much,  and  every 
sucker  or  offshoot  is  terminated  by  a  boll  well  loaded  with 
seed.  When  thickly  sown,  the  stem  grows  single,  and  with- 
out branches,  and  gives  a  long,  fine  fibre.  If  the  soil  be 
very  rich,  and  fibre  is  the  object  of  cultivation,  it  may  be 
sown  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  per  acre.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  seed ;  the  heaviest  is  the  best,  and  it 
should  be  of  a  bright  brownish  cast  and  oily  to  the  touch. 
It  must  be  lightly  harrowed  or  brushed  in  and  rolled. 
When  three  or  four  inches  high,  it  may  be  carefully  weeded 
by  hand,  and  for  this,  it  is  best  to  employ  children ;  or  if 
adults  are  put  on  the  field,  they  should  be  barefoot.  Any  de- 
pression of  the  plants  by  the  feet  will  soon  be  recovered  by 
the  subsequent  growth,  which,  on  good  soil,  will  be  sufficient- 
ly rapid  to  prevent  the  weeds  again  interfering  with  it 
Grass  seed  or  clover  may  be  sown  with  flax  without  any 
detriment  to  it,  but  the  flax  ought  to  be  too  thick  on  the 
field  to  allow  them  to  grow  well  ;  and  in  pulling  the  flax, 
they  will  be  very  likely  to  be  uprooted. 

Harvesting. — When  designed  for  cambrics  and  tha 
finest  linen,  flax  is  pulled  in  flower ;  but  in  this  country  it 
is  seldom  harvested  for  the  fibre  till  the  seed  is  entirely 
formed,  and  although  not  ripe,  most  of  it  will  mature  on  the 
stalk  without  any  prejudice  to  the  fibre.  If  required  for 
seed,  it  must  be  left  standing  till  the  first  seeds  are  well 
ripened.  It  is  then  gathered  and  bound  in  small  bundles, 
and  when  properly  dried,  is  placed  under  cover.     If  it  falls 


HEMP.  191 

^efore  ripening,  it  should  be  pulled  at  once,   whatever  its 
stage  of  growth,  as  this  is  Ihe  only  means  of  saving  it. 

After  Management. — After  removing  the  seed  by  draw- 
ing the  heads  through  a  comb  or  rake  of  finely-set  teeth, 
called  rippling,  the  usual  method  of  preparing  flax  in  tnis 
country,  is  by  dew-rotting,  or  spreading  it  thinly  on  a  clean 
sward,  and  turning  it  occasionally  till  properly  prepared, 
after  which  it  is  put  into  bundles  and  stored  till  a  convenient 
period  for  cleaning  it.  This  is  a  wasteful  practice  and  gives 
an  inferior  quality  of  fibre. 

WatcV'Totting  is  the  best  plan  of  preparing  it,  which 
is  done  in  vats  or  small  ponds  of  soft  water,  similar  to  those 
used  for  hemp.  This  gives  a  strong,  smooth,  silky  fibre, 
and  without  waste,  and  worth  much  more  either  for  sale  or 
for  manufacturing,  than  the  dew-rotted.  Various  steeps  for 
macerating,  and  machines  for  preparing  it  have  been  used, 
which  materially  increase  its  marketable  value  ;  but  it  is 
generally  got  out  on  the  brake  by  hand,  Avhcn  the  farmer  is 
most  at  leisure.  A  crop  of  the  fibre  may  be  estimated  at 
300  to  1,000  lbs.;  and  of  seed,  from  15  to  30  bushels  per 
acre. 

There  are  no  varieties  worthy  of  particular  notice  for 
ordinary  cultivation.  Great  benefit  is  found  to  result  from 
a  frequent  change  of  seed,  to  soils  and  situations  differing 
from  those  where  it  has  been  raised.  The  seed  is  always 
valuable  for  the  linseed-oil  it  yields,  and  the  residuum  of  the 
seed  or  oil-cake,  stands  deservedly  high  as  a  feed  for  all  ani- 
mals. The  entire  seed  when  boiled,  is  among  the  most  fat- 
tening substances  which  the  farmer  can  use  for  animal  food. 
Flax,  like  most  other  plants  grown  for  seed,  is  an  exhaust- 
mg  crop,  but  is  not  when  pulled  or  harvested  before  the  seed 
matures.  The  Flemings  think  flax  ought  not  to  be  raised 
on  the  same  soil  ofteyer  than  once  in  eight  years. 

As  a  means  of  promoting  the  industrial  interests  of  the 
country,  the  raismg  of  flax,  like  that  of  hemp,  cotton,  wool 
and  raw-silk,  is  an  object  of  national  importanci  This 
value  does  not,  like  wheat,  pork,  butter,  &c.,  end  with  thei! 
preparation  for  market,  but  constitutes  a  basis  for  other  in 
dustrial  occupations,  after  leaving  the  hands  of  the  fannar 
Each  should  be  produced  to  the  extent,  at  least,  of  supplyin" 
our  own  maimfactures  with  the  raw  material,  for  making 
the  fullest  amount  of  fabrics  we  can  consume  at  home  oi 
profitably  export  abroad. 

HEMP  (Cannabis  sativa). 
large  portions  of  our  western  soils  and  elinutu,  are  pecu- 


192 


A^MB&ICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


liarly  adapted  to  the  production  of 
hemp,  aud  for  many  yeais  it  has  been 
a  conspicuous  object  of  agricultural 
attention.  We  have  not  yet  brought 
the  supply  to  our  full  consumption ;  as 
we  have  till  recently,  imported  several 
millions  annually,  either  in  its  raw 
state,  or  as  cordage,  twine,  sail-duck, 
osnaburgs  and  other  manitfactured  ar- 
ticles. But  the  increased  attention 
and  skill  bestowed  on  its  cultivation, 
combined  with  our  means  for  its  in- 
definite production,  will  doubtless  soon 
constitute  us  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
hemp-exporting  countries. 

The  Soil  for  hemp  may  be  similar 
to  that  of  flax,  but  with  a  much  wider 
range,  from  a  uniform  standard ;  for  it 
will  thrive  in  moderately  tenacious 
clay,  if  fertile,  and  well  pulverized  ;  and  it  will  do  equally 
well  on  reclaimed  muck  beds,  when  properly  treated.  New 
land  is  not  suited  to  it  till  after  two  or  three  years  of  culti- 
vation. A  grass  sod  or  clover  bed  is  best  for  it,  v\'hen  plowed 
in  the  fall  or  early  in  winter.  This  secures  fine  pulveriza- 
tion by  frost  and  the  destruction  of  insects,  and  especially  the 
cut- worm,  which  is  very  injurious  to  it.  If  not  already  suffi- 
ciently mellow,  it  should  be  re-plowed  iu  the  spring,  as  a 
deep,  fertile  tilth  is  essential  to  its  full  vigor  and  large 
growth. 

CtUtivation. — Early  sowing  produces  the  best  crop,  yet 
it  should  not  be  put  in  so  early  as  to  be  exposed  to  severe 
frost ;  aud  where  there  is  a  large  quantity  planted,  conveni- 
ence in  harvesting  requires  that  it  should  ripen  at  different 
periods.  The  farmer  may  select  his  time  for  sowing,  ac- 
cording to  his  latitude,  and  the  quantity  cultivated.  From 
the  10th  of  April  to  lOtli  June  is  the  fullest  range  allowed. 
The  choice  of  seed  is  material,  as  it  s  important  to  have  a 
full  set  of  plants  on  the  ground  ;  yet  an  excess  is  injurious, 
as  a  part  are  necessarily  smothered  after  absorbing  the 
strensrth  of  the  soil,  and  thev  are  besides,  in  the  wav  of  the 
harvesting,  without  contributing  anything  to  the  value  ol 
the  crop.  Seed  of  the  last  year's  growth  is  best,  as  it  gene- 
rally heats  by  being  kept  over,  which  can  be  avoided  only 
by  spreadin'T;  tliiu.      From  four  to  six  pecks  per  acre  of  good 


UBMP.  93 

seed  is  sutiicieiii.  The  best  is  indicated  by  its  weight  and 
bright  reddisli  color.  It  is  usual  to  sow  broadcast,  harrow 
in  lightly  both  ways,  and  roll  it.  A  smooth  surface  is  mate- 
rial in  facilitating  the  cutting.  Sowing  in  drills  would  re- 
quire less  seed,  give  an  equal  amount  of  crop,  and  materially 
expedite  the  planting.  This  should  always  be  done  before 
moist  weather  if  possible,  as  rapid  and  uniform  germination 
of  the  seed  is  thus  more  certainly  secured.  If  the  soil  be 
very  dry,  it  is  better  to  place  the  seed  deeper  in  the  ground, 
to  reach  a  proper  moisture,  which  can  be  done  with  the 
plow.  If  sown  in  drills  and  well  covered,  it  might  be  pre- 
viously soaked  so  as  to  secure  early  germination  in  the  ab- 
sence of  rains.  I  quote  from  an  excellent  article  on  hemp 
raising,  in  the  American  Agriculturist,  by  the  editor,  A.  B. 
Allen. 

Cutting. — "  No  after  cultivation  is  necessary.  When  the 
blossoms  turn  a  little  yellow,  and  begin  to  drop  their  leaves, 
which  usually  happens  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  months 
after  sowing,  it  is  time  to  cut  the  hemp ;  if  it  stands  a  week 
or  ten  days  longer  than  this,  no  other  detriment  will  ensue 
except  that  it  will  not  rot  so  evenly,  and  becomes  more  la- 
borious to  break.  Cutting  is  now  almost  universally  prac- 
ticed in  preference  to  pulling.  Not  quite  so  much  lint  is 
saved,  but  the  labor  is  easier  and  all  subsequent  operations, 
such  as  spreading,  stacking  and  rotting.  The  lint  also  is  of 
a  better  color  and  finer  fibre,  and  the  roots  and  stubble  left  in 
the  ground  and  plowed  under,  tend  to  lighten  the  soil,  and 
are  equivalent  to  a  light  dressing  of  manure.  If  the  hemp 
i.«  not  above  seven  feet  high,  it  can  be  cut  with  large  and 
sf^cong  cradles,  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  or  two  per  day ;  but  if 
!»nove  this  height,  strong  brush  scythes  must  be  used,  about 
txvo  and  a  half  feet  long. 

Drying  and  Securing. — As  fa-t  a^;  cut,  spread  the  hemp 
on  the  ground,  taking  care  lo  keep  the  butts  even,  when  if 
tne  weather  be  dry  and  warm,  it  \v\\\  be  cured  in  three  days. 
As  soon  as  dry,  couimence  binding  into  sheaves,  and  if  des- 
tined for  water  rotting,  it  ought  to  be  transported  to  dry 
jfiound  convenient  to  the  pools,  and  then  secured  in  round 
stacks,  carefully  thatched  on  the  top  to  keep  out  the  rain ; 
t)ut  if  designed  for  dew  rotting,  it  should  be  secured  in  large 
ricks,  in  the  same  field  where  grown.  The  reason  why  these 
are  to  be  preferred  is,  that  less  of  the  hemp  is  thus  exposed 
to  the  weather,  and  the  more  and  better  the  lint  when  rotted 
and  broken  out. 


194  AM'f-nCAN    AGRICULTURE. 

The  Ricks  should  be  30  to  40  feet  long,  and  15  to  20 
feet  wide,  the  best  foundation  for  which  is  logs  laid  down 
for  the  bottom  course,  six  feet  from  each  other,  then  lay 
across  these,  rails  or  poles  one  foot  apart.  As  the  hemp  is 
bound  in  sheaves,  let  it  be  thrown  into  two  rows,  with  suf- 
ficient space  for  a  wagon  to  pass  between.  While  the 
process  of  taking  up  and  binding  is  going  on,  a  wagon  and 
three  hands,  two  to  pitch  and  one  to  load,  is  engaged  in 
hauling  the  hemp  to  the  rick,  and  stacking  it.  Thus  the  pro- 
cess of  taking  up,  binding,  haulirg,  and  ricking,  all  proceed 
together.  In  this  way  five  handf^  Avill  put  up  a  large  rick  in 
two  days  and  cover  it.  For  rr.aking  the  roof  of  the  rick,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  long  homp,  from  which  the  leaves 
should  be  beaten  off.  In  this  state  only  will  hemp  make  a 
secure  roof. 

In  laying  down  the  hemr,,  begin  with  the  top  ends  of  the 
bundle  inside,  and  if  they  do  not  fill  up  fast  enough  to  keep 
the  inside  of  the  rick  level,  add,  as  occasion  may  require, 
whole  bundles.  Give  it  a  rounded  fonnat  each  end,  and, 
as  it  rises,  it  must  be  widened,  so  as  to  riia^ke  the  top  courses 
shelter  the  bottom  ones.  After  it  is  twelve  feet  high,  com- 
mence for  the  roof,  by  laying  the  bundles  crosswise,  within 
a  foot  of  the  edges  of  the  rick,  building  the  top  up  roof- 
shaped,  and  of  a  slope  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  de- 
grees. For  the  covering  of  the  roof  lay  up  the  bundles  at 
right  angles  to  its  length,  the  butt  ends  down,  and  the  firsi 
course  resting  on  the  rim  of  the  rick  as  left,  one  foot  in 
width.  Lap  the  bundles  in  covering  the  roof  in  courses,  as 
if  shingling  a  house.  Commence  the  second  course  by  re- 
versing the  bundles,  placing  the  .op  ends  down,  and  then 
go  on  lapping  them  as  before.  Begin  the  third  course  of 
shingling  with  the  butt  ends  down,  letting  the  first  hang 
at  least  one  foot  below  the  edge  of  the  roof,  to  shed  off  the 
rain  from  the  body  of  the  stack.  Unbind  the  bundles,  and 
lay  the  covering  at  least  one  foot  thick  uith  the  loose  hemp, 
lapping  well  as  before,  and  for  a  weather  board,  let  the  top 
course  come  up  above  the  peak  of  the  roof  about  three  feet 
and  be  then  bent  aver  it,  towards  that  point  of  the  compass 
from  wliich  the  wind  blows  least.  If  the  work  has  been 
faithfully  performed,  the  rick  may  be  considered  as  finished, 
and  weather  proof,  and  it  requires  no  further  binding.  The 
rick  should  be  made  when  the  weather  is  settled,  for  if  rain 
falls  upon  it  during  the  process,  it  will  materially  injure  the 
aemp.     There  ought  always  to  be  a  sufficient  number  of 


vEMP.  l9a 

hands  :  i  the  field  to  gather,  bind  the  shocks,  an-\  nnish  the 
ricking   n  a  single  day. 

Time  of  dew  rotting. — The  best  time  for  spreading  hemp 
for  dew  rotting,  is  in  the  month  of  December.  '  It  then  re- 
ceives what  is  called  a  Avinter  rot,  and  makes  the  lint  of  the 
hemp  a  light  color,  and  its  quality  better  than  if  spread  out 
early.  But  where  a  farmer  has  a  large  crop,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  a  part  of  his  hemp  ready  to  take  up  late  in  Decem- 
ber, so  that  he  may  commence  breaking  in  January.  Tu 
accomplish  this  object,  a  part  of  his  crop  may  be  spread 
about  the  middle  of  October.  It  would  not  be  prudent  to 
spread  earlier,  as  hemp  will  not  obtain  a  good  rot  if  spread 
when  the  weather  is  warm.  The  experienced  hemp- 
grower  is  at  no  loss  to  tell  when  the  hemp  is  sufficiently 
watered.  A  trial  of  a  portion  of  it  on  the  break  will  be  the 
best  test  for  those  who  have  not  had  much  experience. 
When  sufficiently  watered,  the  stalks  of  the  hemp  lose  that 
hard,  sticky  appearance  or  feel,  which  they  retain  till  the 
process  is  completed.  The  lint  also  begin;'  to  separate  from 
the  stalk,  and  the  fibres  will  show  themselves,  like  the  strings 
of  a  fiddle-bow,  attached  to  the  stalk  at  two  distant  points, 
and  separate  in  t«he  middle.  This  is  a  sure  indication  that 
the  hemp  has  a  good  rot. 

Shocking  after  breaking  and  rotting. — When  the  hemp 
is  dry,  put  in  siiocks  of  suitable  size,  without  binding.  Tie 
all  the  shocks  together  with  a  hemp-band,  by  drawing  the 
tops  closely,  to  prevent  the  rain  from  wetting  the  inside. 
Each  shock  should  be  large  enough  to  produce  from  fifty  to 
sixty  pounds  of  lint.  If  the  hemp  be  considerably  damp 
when  taken  up,  leave  the  shocks  untied  at  the  tops  until 
they  have  time  to  dry.  If  not  well  put  up,  they  are  liable  to 
blow  down  by  a  strong  Avind.  To  guard  against  this,  it  is 
desirable,  when  commencing  a  shock,  to  tie  a  band  around 
the  first  armful  or  two  that  may  be  set  up  and  then  raise  up 
the  parcel  so  tied,  and  beat  it  Avell  against  the  ground  so  as 
to  make  it  stand  firmly,  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  The 
balance  of  the  shock  should  now  be  set  regularly  around  the 
part  as  hereii:i  directed.  If  hemp  be  carefully  shocked,  it 
will  receive  little  or  no  injury  till  the  weather  becomes 
warm.  In  the  meantime  it  should  be  broke  out  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  If  the  operation  be  completed  by  the  middle  of 
April,  no  material  loss  will  be  sustained.  If  delayed  to  a 
later  period,  loss  of  lint  will  be  the  consequence.  Cool, 
frosty  weather  is  much  the  best  for  hemp-breaking.     If  the 


l96  AMERICAN    AGUICULTURE. 

fiemp  is  good,  tirst-iate  liaixls  on  the  the  common  hemp 
break,  Avill  clean  two  hundred  pounds  per  day.  The  ordina- 
ry task  for  hands  is  one  hundred  pounds.'  — Beatty. 

HemjJ-brake. — The  hand  hemp-break  is  made  like  that 
for  flax,  only  much  larger  ;  the  under  slats  on  the  hinder  end 
are  16  to  18  inches  apart,  at  the  fore-end  they  approach 
within  three  inches  of  each  other.  The  slats  in  the  upper 
jaw  are  so  placed  as  to  break  joints  into  the  lower  as  it  is 
brought  down  on  to  the  hemp.  After  breaking  out  the  hemp, 
it  is  twisted  into  bunches,  and  sent  to  the  press-house  to  be 
bailed,  and  is  then  transported  to  market. 

Water  rotting. — The  best  plan  for  water  rotting  is  in 
vats  under  cover,  the  water  in  which  is  kept  at  an  equal 
temperature.  The  hemp  thus  gets  a  perfect  rot  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  in  seven  or  ten  days,  and  when  dried,  is  of 
a  bright,  greenish,  fiaxen  color,  and  is  considered  by  many, 
of  a  better  qualitj^  than  the  finest  Russian,  and  it  brings  as 
high  a  price  in  market.  These  Aats  may  be  easily  con- 
structed and  managed,  and  if  built  in  a  central  position,  by 
a  company  of  planters  on  joint  account,  they  would  be  but 
of  small  expense  to  each,  and  all  in  turn  could  be  accommo- 
dated by  them.  The  hemp  is  first  broken  previous  to  rot- 
ting, in  a  machine,  Avhich  is  moved  by  steam  power ;  this 
lessens  the  bulk  greatly,  by  ridding  it  of  most  of  its  woody 
fibre  ;  but  the  process  is  not  essential  to  rotting  in  vats.  If 
to  be  rotted  in  spring  or  river  Avater,  artificial  pools  or  vats 
must  be  formed  for  this  purpose,  which  should  not  be  over 
three  feet  deep,  otherwise  the  hemp  is  liable  to  an  unequal 
rot.  It  will  require  plank  placed  upon  it  weighted  down 
with  timbers  or  stones,  in  order  to  keep  it  \vell  under  Avater. 
Mr.  Myerle  recommends  vats  40  feet  long,  20  feet  wide,  and 
two  feet  deep.  The  hemp  is  thus  kept  cleaner  Avhile  rot- 
ting, and  the  hands  can  lay  it  down  in  the  vats  and  take  it 
out  without  getting  wet,  which  is  important  to  the  health 
of  the  laborer.  These  vats  greatly  facilitate  the  operation, 
and  they  can  be  fed  with  water  and  ha^e  it  run  off  at  plea- 
sure, without  loss  from  the  hemp.  AVater  rotting  in  streams, 
requires  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  according  to  the  season. 
In  September,  Avhen  the  water  is  warm,  ten  days  is  general- 
ly sufficient  ;  in  October,  about  fifteen,  and  in  December, 
thirty  days  or  more.  For  the  latitude  of  Kentucky,  October 
and  November  are  considered  the  best  months  for  the  opera- 
tion; and  it  is  then  easiest  done,  gives  more  lint,  and  as 
good  a  sample  as  if  deferred  later." 

Raising  Hemp  Seed. — This  requires  another  system  ol 


HEMP.  197 

cultivation,  but  on  a  siinilar  soil,  whic'  should  be  in  the 
finest  condition  as  to  fertility  an  1  pulverizat:()n.  An  old 
pasture  or  meadow  heavily  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall, 
and  well  pulverized  in  ftie  spring,  furnishes  the  best  soil. 
I  quote  from  Judge  Beatty's  essay  on  practical  agricul- 
ture : 

"  The  seed  should  be  planted  either  in  hills  or  drills.  1 
prefer  the  former,  because  it  admits  of  easier  and  better  cul- 
tivation, as  the  plow  can  be  used  both  ways.  It  is  usual  to 
plant  five  feet  apart,  each  way,  and  suffer  four  or  five  stalks 
to  stand  in  a  hill  until  tlie  blossom  hemp  is  removed,  aiid 
then  reduce  the  number  so  as  not  to  exceed  two  stalks  in  a 
hill.  Thus  there  would  be  two  seed  plants  for  each  twenty- 
five  square  feet.  It  would  be  a  better  practice  to  make  the 
hills  three  feet  six  inches  apart,  each  way,  and  thin  theliemp 
to  three  stalks  in  a  hill,  till  the  blossom  hemp  appears  ;  at  the 
proper  time,  cut  out  the  blossom  or  male  hemp  ;  and  if  ne- 
cessary a  part  of  the  seed  hemp,  so  as  to  reduce  the  latter  to 
one  stalk  in  the  hiil. 

The  ground  for  hemp  seed,  having  been  well  pulverized 
by  plowing  twice,  and  running  the  harrow,  lay  off  as  above 
directed,  and  plant  in  the  same  manner  as  corn.  Twelve 
or  fifteen  seed  should  be  scattered  in  each  hill.  Soon  after 
the  hemp  comes  up,  run  a  small  plow  both  ways,  once  in  a 
row.  If  the  groimd  is  not  foul,  the  plowing  may  be  delayed 
till  the  hemp  is  a  few  inches  high,  which  will  enable  the 
plowman  to  avoid  throwing  the  dirt  on  the  tender  plants. 
The  hoes  should  follow  the  second  plowing,  and  clean  away 
the  weeds,  in  or  near  the  hill,  and  thin  out  the  hemp  to  seven 
or  eight  stalks.  These  should  be  the  most  thrifty  plants, 
and  somewhat  separated  from  each  other.  Repeat  the 
plowing  to  keep  the  ground  light  and  free  from  weeds. 
When  the  plants  are  about  a  foot  liigh,  the  hoes  slio aid  again 
go  over  the  ground  and  carefully  cut  down  any  weeds  or 
grass  which  may  have  escaped  the  plow.  The  plants  should 
be  still  further  thinned  out  at  this  time,  leaving  but  four  in 
a  hill,  and  some  fine  mold  drawn  around  the  plants,  so  as  to 
cover  any  small  weeds  that  may  have  come  up  around 
them.  After  seed  hemp  has  attained  the  height  of  a  foot 
and  a  half,  it  will  soon  be  too  large  to  plow,  but  it  ought  to 
have  one  plowing  after  the  last  hoeing.  The  ground,  by 
this  time,  will  hav3  become  so  mrch  shaded  by  the  hemp 
plants,  as  to  prevent  the  weeds  from  growing,  and  nothing 
morj  need  to  be  done  but  for  a  man  to  follow  the  plow,  and 


198  iMERlCAN    AGRICULTCRE. 

if  three  and  a  haiT  feet  be  the  distance  of  the  hills  apart,  re- 
diice  the  number  of  plants  invariably  to  three,  taking  care 
to  remove  those   which  the   last  plowing  may  have  broken. 

When  the  seed  hemp  has  so  far  advanced  as  readily  to 
distinguish  the  male  from  the  female  plants,  let  all  the  blos- 
som hemp  be  cut  ou*,  except  one  stalk  in  every  other  hill, 
each  way.  This  will  leave  one  stalk  of  male  hemp  for  every 
four  hills.  These,  together  with  the  stalks  which  after- 
wards blossom,  will  be  sufficient  to  fertilize  all  the  seed- 
bearing  plants,  aud  secure  a  crop  of  perfect  seed.  After  the 
blossom  plants  have  remained  until  they  have  discharged 
their  pollen,  which  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  dust  ceasing 
to  flow  from  them  when  agitated,  they,  also,  should  be  cut 
down.  Some  top  the  seed  plants  when  five  or  six  feet  high, 
to  make  them  branch  more  freely,  but  this  is  not  necessary 
where  but  one  or  two  seed-bearing  plants  are  suffered  to  re- 
main in  each  hill." 

A  seed-beannsr  hemp  crop  is  a  great  exhauster  of  land, 
while  such  as  is  grown  only  for  the  fibre,  takes  but  a  moder- 
ate amount  of  fertilizing  matter  from  the  soil.  Unlike  most 
crops  sown  broadcast,  it  grows  with  such  strength  and  luxu- 
riance, as  to  keep  the  weeds  completely  smothered ;  and  it 
may,  therefore,  be  2TO'«ti  for  many  successive  seasons  on  the 
same  field,  without  the  latter  becoming  foul.  Its  entire 
monopoly  of  the  ground,  prevents  the  growth  of  clover  or 
the  grasses  in  connection  with  it. 

The  seed  yields  an  oiloi  inferior  value,  but  when  cooked, 
it  affords  a  fattening  food  for  animals. 

COTTON  (Gossypium,  Fig.  44). 

Within  the  last  few  years,  this  has  become  the  leading 
agricultural  export  of  the  United  States.  The  total  amount 
of  the  cotton  crop  in  this  couutrv,  in  1845,  was  estimated  at 
about  850,000,000  lbs.,  and  for 'l  848,  nearly  1,000,000,000. 
This  enoimous  product  has  mainly  grown  up  within  the 
last  60  years.  Even  as  late  as  1825,  our  total  production 
was  within  170,000,000.  The  introduction  of  Whitney's 
cotton  gin,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  gave  the  first 
decided  movement  towards  the  growth  of  American  cotton. 
Previous  to  this,  the  separation  of  the  cotton  seed  from  the 
fibre  was  mostly  dene  by  hand  ;  and  the  process  was  so  slow 
and  expensive,  as  to  prevent  any  successful  competition  "with 
the  foreign  article.  This  incomparable  invention,  which 
clea'aes.'.  1,000  lbs.  i:  the  same  tin:?  a  few  pounds  could  be 


COTTON. 


199 


eleaii?i  without  it,  overcame  the  only  obstacle  to  complete 
success ;  and  millions  of  acres  of  the  fertile  lauds  of  the 
South  and  West  are  now  annually  covered  with  the  snowy 
product.  The  increase  seems  to  know  no  check  or  abate- 
ment ;  as  with  the  lessening  price  and  increasing  quantity, 
the  demand  seems  constantly  to  augment. 

Climate  and  Soil. — Cotton  will  grow  in  some  of  the 
middle  States,  but  with  little  profit  north  of  the  Carolinas 
and  Tennessee.  The  soil  required  is  a  dry,  rich  loam.  Light 
sands  and  tolerably  heavy  clays  will  produce  cotton,  but 
with  much  less  profit  than  the  loams. 


Fig  44.. 

Planting. — During  the  winter,  the  land  intended  foe 
planting  should  be  thrown  up  in  beds,  by  turning  several  fur- 
rows together.  These  beds  may  be  four  feet  from  centre  to 
centre  for  a  moderate  quality  of  upland  soil,  and  tive  feet  for 
the  lowlands.  But  these  distances  should  be  increased  with 
tiie  increasing  strength  of  the  soil,  to  seven  and  eight  feet, 
and  in  some  instances,  even  to  a  greater  distance  for  the 
strongest  lands.  These  may  lie  until  the  time  of  planting, 
from  20tl-  of  JNIarch  to  20 th  of  April,  when  no  further  danger 


200  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

from  frost  is  apprehended  ;  then  harroTv,  and  w:th  a  light 
plow,  mark  the  centre  of  the  beds  and  soav  at  the  rate  ol 
two  to  five  bushels  per  acre.  A  drilling  machine  might  be 
made  to  answer  this  purpose  better,  and  save  much  time.  An 
excess  of  seed  is  necessary,  to  provide  for  the  enemies  of  the 
plant  and  other  contingencies.  If  all  the  seed  germinates, 
there  will  be  a  large  surplus  of  plants,  -which  must  be  re- 
moved by  thinning.  There  is  an  advantage  in  mixing  the  seed 
before  it  is  so^vn,  with  moistened  ashes  or  gypsi^m,  as  it 
facilitates  sowing  and  germination.  It  should  be  buried 
about  an  inch  deep,  and  the  earth  pressed  closely  over  it. 

The  cotton  plant,  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Philips,  is  hardier, 
even,  than  corn,  when  properly  treated.  He  contends,  and  I 
must  say,  with  a  great  deal  of  apparent  reason,  that  thick 
planting  is  to  be  deprecated,  and  that  but  two  or  three 
pecks  of  prime  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  This 
^vould  expose  each  plant  to  the  atmosphere,  and  give  it  op- 
portunity and  room  to  deA-elop  a  strong  stalk  with  abundant 
foliase  ;  and  he  asserts,  when  thus  grown,  a  frost  that  will 
cut  down  corn,  will  leave  the  youeg  cotton  plant  uninjured. 
There  is  a  great  disadvantage  in  exposing  the  long,  spindling 
shoots,  that  have  grown  up  among  a  croAvd  of  others,  to  the 
sun,  wind  and  frost,  when  they  are  thinned  out.  A  tempo- 
rar}'  check  is  thus  always  given  to  the  plant,  and  frequently, 
a  permanent  injury  is  sustained  in  consequence  of  it. 

The  varieties  of  seed  used  for  uplands  are  the  Mexican 
and  Petit-Gulf,  both  of  similar  origin,  but  the  latter  is  better 
selected  and  has  been  kept  pure.  New  seed -n'hich  has  been 
brought  from  a  distance,  ought  to  be  substituted  for  the  old 
as  often  as  once  in  three  years.  The  beneficial  effects  of 
this  practice  would  probably  be  enhanced  by  bringing  it 
from  a  different  soil,  and  more  especially,  such  as  had  grown 
upon  one  of  inferior  quality  to  that  intended  to  be  planted. 

The  Petit-Gulf,  raised  near  Rodney,  in  Mississippi,  is 
universally  esteemed  the  best  seed,  and  it  will  frequently 
yield  from  one  to  tAvo  hundred  pounds  more  of  cotton  per 
acre  than  the  average  of  such  as  is  produced  elseAvhere 
This  difference  has  arisen,  in  part  at  least,  from  the  great 
care  used  in  the  selection  nnd  management  of  the  seed 
and  it  may  be,  and  probabh  is,  in  part  due  to  some  peculiai 
difference  in  soil  or  localitv,  that  better  prepares  the  seed  foi 
an  abundant  yield  when  transferred  to  remote  fields. 

The  cultivation  is  performed  with  various  instruments,  the 
bull-tonffue   or  scooter,  the  shovel,  double  shovel,  the  sweeu 


COTTON.  20 


the  harrow,  the  cultivator  and  the  hoe.  One  or  rriore  of  the 
former  must  be  used  to  pulverize  the  land  and  uproot  and 
clean  off  the  weeds  ;  while  the  last  is  necessary  to  carry  this 
operation  directly  up  to  the  stem  of  the  plants.  The  culture 
is  thus  summarily  stated  by  Dr.  M.  W.  Philips,  of  Missis- 
sippi ;  "  Commence  cleaning  the  cotton  early,  and  cleaji  it 
well;  return  to  it  as  sooy  as  possible,  throw  earth  or  mold 
:o  the  young  plants,  and  _f  the  ground  be  hard  give  it  a 
thorough  plowing ;  keep  the  earth  light  and  mellow  and  the 
plants  clear  of  grass  and  weeds."  The  plants  are  thinned 
at  every  hoeing,  till  they  attain  a  height  of  three  or  four 
inches,  when  they  are  allowed  to  stand  at  intervals  of  about 
eight  or  ten  inches  for  a  medium  quality  of  soil.  This  dis- 
tance  should  be  largely  increased  when  it  is  richer. 

Enemies  and  Diseases. — Cotton  is  subject  to  the  cut- 
worm, the  army-worm,  and  boU-Avorm,  the  slug,  the  cater- 
pillar, cotton  lice,  gTa>&hoppers,  rot,  sore  shin  anJ  rust.  1 
have  seen  no  remedies  prescribed  for  either,  but  suggest 
for  experiment,  the  exposure  of  the  two  former  to  fros'tf  by 
plowing  just  before  its  appearance.  Late  planting,  and 
when  the  season  is  so  well  advanced  as  to  give  a  rapM  and 
uniform  growth,  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  preventives 
against  disease  or  injury  from  insect  enemies.  The  free  use 
of  lime  and  salt,  and  similar  manures  might  arrest  or  miti- 
gate the  effects  of  all.  Birds  should  also  be  encouraged 
upon  the  fields,  as  they  would  destroy  numbers  of  the  worm 
and  insect  tribes.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Mexican  and  Petit-Gulf  varieties,  is  the  most  ef- 
fectual remedy,  as  they  are  hardier  kinds,  are  less  the  object 
of  attack  and  have  a  greater  ability  to  withstand  it. 

Harvesting  is  commenced  when  the  bolls  have  beo-un  to 
expand,  and  the  cotton  is  protruded.  This  is  continued  as 
the  bolls  successively  ripen  and  burst  their  capsules.  It  is 
done  entirely  by  hand,  the  picker  passing  between  two  rows 
and  gleaning  from  each.  The  cotton  is  placed  in  a  bag  cap- 
able of  containing  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds,  which  is^huno- 
upon  his  shoulders  or  strapped  upon  his  breast. — These  are 
emptied  into  large  baskets  which  are  taken,  when  filled,  to 
tlie  gin-house.  I  quote  the  above  authority  :  "  Having 
all  things  ready  for  picking  cotton,  I  commence  early,  and 
as  soon  as  the  hands  can  gather  even  twenty  pounds  each. 
This  is  advisable,  not  only  in  savinir  a  portion  of  that  from 
being  destroyed,  if  rains  should  fall,' which  often  do  at  this 
season,  (al)out  the  middle  of  August),  but  for  another  reason  ; 


202  AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

(.assiug  through  the  cotton  has  a  tendencj'^  to  open  out  to 
sun  and  air,  the  limbs  that  have  interlocked  across  the  rows, 
and  hastens  the  early  opening.  On  low  grounds,  especially, 
much  loss  is  incurred  in  some  seasons  from  the  want  of  the 
sun  to  cause  an  expansion  of  the  fibre  within  the  boll,  so  as 
to  cause  it  to  open.  The  boll  is  composed  of  five  divisions, 
in  each  of  which  there  is  a  parcel  of  cotton  wool  surround- 
ing each  seed,  there  being  several  in  each  lock  of  cotton. 
When  green,  these  fibres  lie  close  to  the  seed,  and  as  it  r: 
pens,  the  fibres  become  elastic,  the  boll  be:;oming  hard  and 
brownish.  The  Sea  Island  has  only  three  divisions,  as  also 
the  Egv'ptian,  which  is  only  the  Sea  Island  of  the  best  va- 
riety, with  black  seed,  smooth,  and  a  yellowish  tuft  of  fibres 
on  the  small  end  ;  they  are  both  from  Pernambuco.  Some 
of  the  cotton  we  plant  has  only  four  divisions,  but  I  think 
five  gene  ally. 

Tliere  is  a  peculiar  art  in  gathering  the  cotton  from  the 
boll,  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  practice ;  manj^  gather 
equally  fast  Avith  either  hand.  The  left  hand  seizes  the  stem 
near  the  open  boll,  or  the  boll  between  the  two  middle  fin- 
gers, the  palm  of  the  hand  up  ;  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand 
are  inserted  tolerably  low  down  in  the  boll,  a  finger  on  each 
lock  of  cotton  ;  then,  as  the  fingers  grasp  it,  there  is  a  slight 
twisting  motion,  and  a  quick  pull,  which,  if  done  well,  w^ill 
extract  the  contents. 

Cotton  should  be  gathered  frotn  the  field  as  clean  as 
possible,  taken  to  the  scaffolds  and  dried  until  the  seed  will 
crack  Avhen  pressed  between  the  teeth,  not  crush  or  mash, 
but  crack  with  some  noise.  It  should  be  frequently  turned 
over  and  stirred,  and  all  the  trash  and  rotten  pods  taken  out, 
while  this  is  done,  to  insure  its  drying  earlier. 

If  seeds  are  wanted  for  planting,  gin  the  cotton  imme- 
diately, and  spread  the  seed  over  the  floor  some  five  inches 
thick,  until  perfectly  dry.  If  the  cotton-seed  be  not- wanted, 
pack  the  seed-cotton  away  in  the  house,  to  remain  until  a 
gentle  heat  is  discovered,  or  until  sufficient  for  ginning. 
After  it  has  become  heated,  until  there  is  a  sensible  feeling 
of  warmth  to  the  hand,  and  it  looks  as  if  pressed  together, 
open  and  scatter  to  cool.  This  cotton  will  gin  faster,  have 
A  softer  feel,  is  not  so  brittle,  therefore  not  so  liable  to  break 
by  rapidity  of  gin,  and  has  a  creamy  color  ;  the  wool  has 
imbibed  a  part  of  the  oil  that  has  exuded  by  the  warmth  of 
seed,  and  is  in  fact  restored  to  the  original  color.  I  have 
known  of  ">  \;umber  of  sales  made  of  this  description  of  cot- 


COTTON.  203 

♦on,  and  even  those  who  are  most  strenuous  against  the 
seating,  admit  it  bore  a  better  price."  The  cotton  is  theu 
ginned  and  baled,  when  it  is  ready  for  market. 

Topping  Cotton  between  the  20th  July  and  20th  August 
\s  practiced  by  many  planters  with  decided  success.  It  is 
generally  considered  highly  beneficial  in  dry  seasons,  but 
not  in  wet,  and  that  in  tluoe  years  ovit  of  five  it  is  attended 
with  particular  advantage  to  the  crop. 

SEA-ISLAND  COTTON, 

This  crop  is  raised  on  the  islands  and  low  lands  that  bor- 
der the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  If  removed 
from  this  locality,  the  fibre  seems  immediately  to  degene- 
rate. It  requires,  in  many  respects,  a  treatment  unlike  that 
of  the  upland.  I  insert  an  article  by  Thomas  Spalding, 
Esq.,  an  experienced  and  intelligent  planter,  who  has  lono- 
been  engaged  in  its  cultivation  :  "  The  Sea-Island  cotton 
was  introduced  into  Georgia  from  the  Bahamas.  The  seed 
was  from  a  small  island  near  St.  Domingo,  known  as  Ar- 
guilla,  then  producing  the  bestcotton  of  the  western  world. 
It  in  no  way  resembles  the  Brazil  cotton,  which  is  the 
kidney-seed  kind,  introduced  some  years  later,  and  which, 
after  trial,  Avas  rejected  in  Georgia.  It  came  in  small  par- 
cels from  the  Bahamas,  in  the  winter  of  1785  ;  and  gradually 
made  its  way  along  the  coast  of  Georgia,  and  passed  into 
Carolina.  The  winter  of  1786  in  Georgia  was  a  mild  one, 
and  although  the  plants  of  the  Sea-Island  that  year  had  not 
ripened  their  seed,  it  being  a  perennial,  and  subject  only  to 
be  killed  by  frost,  it  started  the  next  season  from  the  roots 
of  the  previous  year,  its  seed  ripened,  and  the  plants  became 
acclimated.  Many  changes  have  come  over  this  seed  since 
that  time,  from  difference  of  soil,  culture,  and  local  position, 
and  above  all,  from  careful  selection  of  seed.  But  the 
cause  is  yet  to  be  discovered,  why  the  gain  in  finenses  of 
Avool,  is  lost  in  the  quality  and  weight  of  the  product ;  for 
in  spite  of  a  zeal  and  intelligence  brought  to  act  upon  the 
subject  without  parallel,  the  crops  are  yearly  diminishino", 
until  to  grow  Sea-Island  cotton  is  one  of  the  most  profitless 
pursuits  within  the  I'-iiits  of  the  United  States. 

Planting. — When  the  first  seed  was  introduced,  it  was 
planted  in  hills  prepared  upon  the  level  field,  at  five  feet 
each  way ;  but  it  was  soon  found  to  be  a  very  tender  plant, 
liable  to  suffsr  by  storms,  by  wind,  by  drought,  and  by  ex- 
cess of  rail:      The  quantity  -^^  seed  was  therefore  increased^ 


204  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

and  the  plants  multiplied.  If  the  seed  is  at  first  covered 
more  than  two  inches,  it  will  not  feel  the  influence  of  the 
sun,  and  will  not  vegetate  later  in  the  season  ;  that  is,  in 
April.  You  must  give  from  three  to  four  inches  of  covering 
to  preserve  the  moisture,  or  you  ftill  from  an  opposite  cause, 
the  wind  and  sun  drying  the  soil  too  much  for  vegetation. 
In  most  countries,  after  sowing  the  seed,  the  roller  is  applied ; 
but  in  cotton-planting,  in  our  ridge-husbandry,  the  foot  in 
covering  the  seed  and  pressing  down  the  earth,  well  supplies 
its  place. 

Preparing  the  land. — Early  in  February,  clean  the 
rested  fields,  and  either  burn  off  the  fennel-weeds  and  grass 
of  the  previous  year,  or  list  them  in  at  five  feet  apart,  to 
serve  as  the  base  of  the  future  ridges  or  bed.  There  is  much 
difference  of  opinion  upon  the  subject  of  burning  or  listing 
in.  I  am  inclined  to  take  the  first  opinion,  believing  that 
the  light  dressing  of  ashes  the  field  receives  from  burning 
off,  is  more  beneficial  to  the  soil  than  the  decay  of  the  vege- 
table matter,  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  produce  what  is  a 
growing  evil,  the  rust;  a  species  of  blight,  much  resembling 
the  rust  or  blight  upon  wheat,  and  which  takes  place  about 
the  same  period,  just  as  the  plant  is  putting  out,  and  pre- 
paring to  ripen  its  fruit.  For  many  years  it  has  been  the 
practice,  among  experienced  planters,  to  divide  the  enclosed 
fields  into  two  portions  ;  the  one  at  rest,  the  other  in  culture. 

Ridging. — The  land  being  listed  in  short  lines  across  the 
entire  field,  at  five  feet  apart,  the  operation  of  ridging  is  ccm- 
nienced  about  the  first  of  March.  The  ridges  occupy  the 
entire  surface,  the  foot  of  one  ridge  coniiuencing  where  the 
other  ends,  and  rising  about  eight  inches  above  the  natural 
level  of  the  land,  thus  presenting  a  surface  almost  as  smooth, 
and  almost  a*  deeply  worked,  as  a  garden-bed.  This  is  done 
but  a  few  days  ahead  of  the  planting,  and  the  ridge  Is  from 
two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  broad  at  top  ;  it  is  then  trenched 
on  the  upper  surface  with  the  hoe,  six  inches  wide,  and  from 
three  to  six  inches  deep,  depending  upon  the  period  of 
planting. 

(Quantity  of  seed  per  acre. — A  bushel  of  seed  is  gener- 
ally sown  to  the  acre,  I  believe  half  a  bushel  is  better  ;  for 
where  the  evil  comes,  whether  the  worm,  wind,  drought,  or 
wet,  there  is  no  security  in  the  many,  but  where  they  come  up 
thin,  they  soon  grow  out  of  the  way  of  injury. 

After-culture. — The  cultivation  of  Sea-Island  cotton  is 
carried  on  by  the  hand   -oe,  and  the  qiianuty  is  always  lim- 


COTTON.  205 

ited  to  foul  acres  to  the  laborer.  The  operation  ol  weedin<T 
commences  as  soon  as  we  finish  planting,  because  in  our 
flat  and  sandy  soils  the  grass-seed  springs  with  tlie  lirst 
growth  of  the  cotton,  and  by  the  time  we  finish  planting, 
say  the  1st  of  May,  what  we  planted  in  March  requires  the 
hoe.  In  the  operation  of  hoeing  and  Aveeding,  the  land  is 
kept,  as  far  as  )nay  be,  at  its  original  level,  the  beds  neither 
increased  nor  diminished,  that  the  heavy  rains  which  o-ener- 
ally  fall  in  August,  may  injure  the  growing  plants,  Avhich 
are  then  in  full  bearing,  as  little  as  possible.  The  youn" 
cotton  is  thinned  out  slowly  at  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
apart  on  the  ridge,  by  the  10th  of  June.  As  soon  as  the 
rains  commence,  which  is  about  the  last  of  July,  it  is  wise 
to  leave  nature  to  herself,  and  no  longer  disturb  the  soil. 
Four  hoeings,  if  well  done,  and  the  grass  well  picked  at 
each  hoeing,  is  enough;  nor  does  any  aftergrowth  of  gra.ss 
do  injury. 

Manures  and  soiling  stock. — For  ten  years  past,  great 
efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Sea-Island  planters  in  ma- 
nurmg.  Much  of  the  alluvion  of  our  salt  rivers  has  been 
collected,  and  sometimes  placed  directly  in  heaps  throuo-h 
the  fields  at  rest,  and  at  other  times  placed  in  cattle-pens  on 
which  cotton  seed  and  all  waste  materials  are  strewn,  and 
the  cattle  penned  upon  it.  But  what  is  preferred,  is  to  per 
our  cattle  near  the  river  at  night,  and  cut  salt-grass,  which 
covers  these  alluvion  lands,  and  which  is  as  nutritious  as  so 
much  clover.  Great  benefits  will  hereafter,  undoubtedly 
result  from  the  use  of  marl. 

Aynoimt  of  crop  per  acre  and  picking. — It  has  been  sta- 
ted  already,  that  500  pounds  to  the  acre,  is  about  the  medi- 
um crop,  which  at  20  cents  per  pound  (more  than  the  actual 
price  for  the  last  three  years),  is  to  the  planter,  $100  for 
gross  crop;  and  from  this  $100  dollars,  is  to  be  subtracted 
bagging,  freight,  expenses  of  sale,  clothing  for  his  people, 
medical  attention,  and  too  often  provisions." 

The  varieties  of  Cotton  in  the  United  States,  which  have 
been  cultivated  with  success  in  addition  to  those  enumera- 
ted, are  the  Rio,  with  a  staple  about  three  inches  in  length, 
of  a  glossy,  silky  texture,  brought  from  South  America  -^the 
Egyptian,  received  from  the  garden  of  Mehemet  Ali,  and 
grown  in  Louisiana  15  feet  in  height ;  the  Mastadoti,  lately 
mtroduced  from  Mexico,  firm  in  texture  and  quite  produc- 
tive;  the  Chinese  Silk  Cotton,  white,  soft,  fine  and  silky; 
the  Ea.'it  India,  orowing  to  a  height  of  1  i  feet,  and  prr^lu- 


206  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

cing  a  beatiful  fibre ;  and  the  Nankeen,  a  handsome  staple 
of  a  {iiie  uankeen  color,  raised  by  the  late  Hon.  John  Foi 
syth,  of  Georgia,  and  some  other  planters. 

Cotton  seed,  like  most  of  our  cultivated  plants,  is  the 
creature  of  circumstances,  and  improves  or  deteriorates 
within  certain  limits,  according  to  climate,  soil,  manner  of 
selecting,  &:c.  Even  the  long,  silken  fibre,  and  the  black 
seeds  of  the  Sea-Island,  assume  the  shorter,  coarser  staple, 
and  the  green  seed  of  the  upland,  "when  exposed  for  two  or 
three  years  to  the  same  soil  and  position ;  and  a  correspond- 
ing change  takes  place,  when  the  upland  is  made  to  grow  on 
the  low  sea-girt  islands  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
The  sea-muck,  which  is  full  of  minute  shells  (lime),  decom- 
posed animal  matter,  including  many  of  the  phosphates  and 
salt,  is  one  of  the  best  applications  for  improving  the  qual- 
ity of  staple,  as  well  as  augmenting  the  quantity  of  fibre. 
Salt,  by  many  experienced  planters,  is  deemed  the  principal 
ingredient  in  effecting  this  improvement.  It  is  believed  that 
■t  may  be  applied  with  equal  success  to  the  upland  varieties. 

The  amount  of  seed  in  cotton  is  large,  being  nearlj'  70 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  gathering,  the  fibre  being  about  28. 
This  is  used  for  various  purposes.  Sometimes  it  is  pressed 
for  the  oil,  of  which  it  yields  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  its 
own  weight.  When  thus  treated,  the  cake  is  used  for  cat- 
tle food.  The  seed  is  frequently,  though  improperly  fed 
raw  to  stock  ;  and  this  often  proves  fatal,  especially  to  s-w  ino 
when  fed  before  the  adhering  fibre  has  been  decomposed, 
besides  being  attended  with  much  Avast^.  It  is  most  advan- 
tageously prepared  by  boiling  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  will 
benefit  all  descriptions  of  stock.  By  adding  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  corn,  and  boiling  them  together,  it  will  fatten  swine 
rapidly.     It  is  also  useful  to  land  as  a  manure. 

SITGAR  CANE    (Saccharum  officinarum,  Fig.  45). 

This  plant  icas  cultivated  in  Louisiana,  on  the  present 
site  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  a.s  early  as  1726.  For  more 
ithan  half  a  century,  however,  its  use  was  almost  wholly 
.imited  to  the  conversion  of  its  juice  into  syrup  and  molas- 
■«s.  Sugar  was  not  made  within  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
ill  after  1760.  In  796,  the  second  sugar  mill  was  erected 
in  the  plantation  now  occupied  by  the  town  of  Carrolton. 
^Jwing  to  the  revolQtion  in  St.  Domingo,  and  the  emigration 
ot  large  numbers  of  her  planters  to  Louisiana,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  cane  was  largely  extended  soon  afta    this  period ; 


THE    SUGAR    CANE. 


207 


Fio.  48. 


jret  so  late  as  1813,  the  entire  crop  of  the  State  amo  anted  only 
to  25,000  hogsheads. 

Steam  power  was  first  applied  to  grinding  the  cane,  in 
1822,  and  since  that  period,  its  cul- 
tivation has  been  rapidly  spreading 
over  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  adjoining  territory.  The 
product  of  Louisiana  in  1845, 
reached  the  enormous  quantity  of 
207,337,000  pounds,  and  about 
9,000,000  gallons  of  molasses, 
worth  nearly  $15,000,000  ;  being 
an  increase  of  over  ten  times  the 
quantity  yielded  but  30  years  be 
fore. 

Its  introduction  into  other 
States. — The  cane  Avas  introduced 
into  Georgia  from  Otaheite,  in 
1805,  and  sugar  was  for  some- 
time produced  for  export.  It  was 
an  object  of  attention  \vhile  it 
commanded  ten  cents  per  pound  ; 
but  when  the  prices  declined  to  five  and  six  cents,  it  ceased 
to  be  manufactured  as  an  article  of  commerce,  though  still 
extensively  produced  for  domestic  consumption.  It  has  re- 
cently engrossed  the  attention  of  planters  to  some  extent, 
in  Florida  and  Texas  ;  and  there  are  portions  of  these  States 
eminently  calculated,  both  in  soil  and  climate,  to  rival  the 
best  sections  of  Louisiana  in  its  culture.  The  southern 
portions  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  as  well  as  the  Caro- 
linas,  have  also  begun  to  plant  the  car.e  for  the  supply  of 
their  own  syrup,  and  they  have  thus  far  proved  it  an  object 
well  worthy  their  pursuit. 

The  i/itroduction  of  the  Ribbon  Cane,  from  Georgia  into 
the  adjoining  States,  in  1817,  by  giving  a  much  hardier  variety, 
has  largely  extended  the  area  of  its  cultivation,  and  render- 
ed it  a  desirable  crop,  v/here  it  would  not  otherwise  have 
been  an  object  of  attention.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  it  is 
gradually  becoming  acclimated,  and  that  hereafter,  it  Avill 
endure  an  exposure,  and  yield  profitable  returns  far  north  of 
»iiy  point  where  it  has  hitherto  been  successfully  grown. 
The  total  product  of  sugar  has  not  yet  reached  over  60  pet 
cent,  of  o  ir  own  consumption.  But  this  interest  is  rapidly 
extending  throughout  those  portions  of  the  southern  States 


208  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

adapted  to  it;  and  v/ith  the  immense  area,  capable  of  being 
reclaimed  from  the  swamps  of  the  Gulf  coast  and  elsewhere, 
devoted  to  this  object,  there  is  no  improbability  that  the 
energies  of  American  planters,  will  soon  carry  our  produc- 
tion beyond  the  total  of  the  world,  in  1844,  which  was  be- 
low 780,000  tons,  or  about  1,500,000  hogsheads. 

Varieties. — The  kind  most  cultivated  in  the  United 
States,  is  the  strvped  Ribbon  or  Java,  which  is  by  far  the 
hardiest  and  most  enduring  cane.  It  grows  rapidly,  is  of 
large  size,  and  resists  the  effects  of  early  and  late  frosts, 
and  the  excess  of  rains  or  drought  and  disease,  better  than 
any  other.  It  has,  however,  a  hard,  coarse  rind,  and  yields 
juice  of  only  a  medium  quality.  The  outer  coating  is  beau- 
tifully striped  with  alternate  blue  and  yellow,  of  varying 
widths,  and  changing  in  every  successive  joint.  Tlie  red 
ribbon,  or  violet,  from  Ja^-a,  is  much  like  the  foregoing,  ex- 
cept in  having  a  uniform  color,  and  by  many  it  is  preferred 
for  ncAv  land. 

The  Creole,  crystaline  or  Malabar,  was  the  first  introdu- 
ced, and  though  of  diminutive  size,  is  a  cane  of  great  rich- 
ness and  value.  Several  varieties  of  the  Otaheite,  the  pur- 
ple, the  yellow,  and  the pur2:>le-ba7ided,  are  more  or  less  cul- 
tivated. Some  of  these  were  brought  into  Georgia  at  an 
early  day,  and  thence  transferred  to  Louisiana.  Those  I 
have  seen  have  a  large  stalk  of  great  succulency,  but  yield- 
ing a  juice  decidedly  inferior  to  the  Creole.  Some  additional 
varieties,  such  as  ?/ie^reyca??es,  intermixed  with  the  ribbon, 
and  occasionally  others  have  been  introduced,  but  they  are 
not  of  superior  quality,  or  of  general  cultivation. 

S>oil. — The  cane  will  flourish  in  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
varying  between  the  extremes  of  a  stiff  clay  and  a  light 
sandy  loam,  provided  the  former  be  Avell  drained  and  fertile. 
The  soil  best  suited  to  it  is  a  fertile  loam,  well  supplied  with 
lime,  and  such  as  will  yield  the  best  crops  of  Indian  corn. 
Some  of  the  best  and  most  enduring  soils  in  the  "West  In- 
dies and  elsewhere,  contain  large  quantities  of  lime  and 
the  phosphates.  The  most  profitable  sugar  plantation  in 
Louisiana,  has  a  profusion  of  shells  scattered  over  it,  in  every 
stage  of  decomposition. 

&eed  Cane. — This  plant  is  always  propagated  by  cuttings. 
These  ought  to  be  provided  from  the  best  cane  of  the  pre- 
ceding season.  From  the  use  of  the  um"ipe  tops  and  close, 
negligent  planting,  it  is  supposed  the  Creole  cane  has  degen- 
eiuted  to   its  present  diminutive   size.      There  is  lea*  vigoi 


I 


THE   SUGAR    CANE.  209 

and  giowth  usually  from  tops  than  from  the  ripened  cane; 
thoug  1  where  these  are  matured  and  a  portion  of  the  ripe 
stalk  is  left  with  it,  the  resulting  crops,  under  the  most 
fa^orable  circumstances,  are  scarcely  distinguishable.  Fine 
growth  frequently  follows  planting  ilie  tops,  where  the  land 
is  new  and  fertile  ;  but  it  is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule ; 
and  good  husbandry  dictates  a  reliance  on  sound,  mature 
cane  only,  for  general  use.  There  is  no  doubt,  that  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  laws  of  vegetation,  the  cane  crop 
would  be  benefitted  by  a  change  of  the  plant  cane  from  one 
section  of  country  to  another.  But  as  this  would  be  at- 
tended with  so  much  trouble  and  expense  as  to  preclude  the 
undertaking,  the  only  remaining  means  available  for  secur- 
ing improvement  or  preventing  deterioration,  is  to  be  found 
in  planting  the  best  qualities  of  seed  cane. 

preservation  of  the  Cane. — This  is  kept  from  the  period 
of  cutting  till  planting,  by  simply  placing  it  on  the  dry  sur- 
face of  the  field,  in  beds  or  mattresses,  as  they  are  techni- 
cally termed,  of  about  two  feet  in  depth,  and  having  the 
tops  shingling  or  overlying  the  ripe  portion  of  the  stalk. 
The  tops  should  lie  towards  the  soi;th,  to  prevent  their  being 
Ufted  and  frozen  from  severe  north  winds,  which  sometimes 
occur.  Thick  beds  preserve  a  more  uniform  temperature, 
and  repel  the  approach  both  of  frost  and  the  sun's  rays  ; 
thus  serving  the  double  purpose,  besides  their  preservation 
from  frost,  of  preventing  fermicntation  during  fall  and  winter, 
and  germination  on  the  approach  of  spring. 

It  is  well  to  preserve  an  excess  of  seed  cane,  as  continued 
and  severe  spring  frosts  may  cut  do^vn  and  destroy  so  many 
young  shoots,  as  to  leave  a  deficiency,  unless  partially  re- 
planted. Many  assert  the  cane  will  keep  better  by  being  cut 
soon  after  a  rain,  so  as  to  be  bedded  Avith  the  sap  vessels 
full,  and  that  dry  rot  follows  when  cut  after  a  lonsr  drouo-ht. 
Some,  however,  allow  it  to  lie  on  the  ground  and  wilt  for 
two  or  three  days  after  cutting,  and  think  when  thus  treated, 
it  keeps  equally  well. 

Cane  u-Jtich  is  intended  for  grindi?7g  is  often  thus  se- 
cured, when  severe  frosts  are  anticipated.  It  requires  ad- 
ditional labor  to  top  and  trim  it  when  thus  harvested  ;  but 
a  good  yield  of  sugar  is  in  this  Avay  often  secured,  which 
might  otherwise  be  lost. 

Preparation  for  planting. — Wliere  the  land  is  new  (as 
much  of  it  is,  that  is  noAV  appropriated  to  cane),  it  is  inva- 
riably light  and  full  of  vegetable  matter.     Shallow  plowing, 


2l0  AMERICAN    AGKIOULTURE. 

and  wide  distances  between  the  rows,  are  here  justified 
The  cane  grows  luxuriantly  in  such  soils,  and  where  there 
is  a  deiiciency  of  warm  weather  to  mature  it  fully,  as  in 
Louisia  .la,  room  is  required  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of 
air,  and  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun,  to  ripen  it  before  the  ap- 
proach of  frosts.  From  seven  to  ten  feet  is  near  enough  fox 
the  rows,  but  these  should  contain  from  two  to  three  con- 
tinuous lines  of  good  plant  cane.  Where  the  land  is  fertile, 
wide  row^s,  if  well  cultivated,  will  produce  an  equal  quan- 
tity as  if  planted  closer,  and  there  is  much  less  expense  and 
labor  in  planting  and  tending  the  crop. 

Land  that  has  been  long  in  cultivation,  may  be  planted 
nearer  ;  but  if  sufficiently  fertile,  as  it  ought  always  to  be, 
it  should  never  be  nearer  than  six  feet,  and  under  certain 
circumstances,  may  extend  to  nine.  It  was  formerly  the 
practice  to  plant  a  single  line  of  seed  cane,  in  rows  from  two 
and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart ;  but  this  system  has  been  given 
up,  as  it  was  found  troublesome  in  cultivating,  slower  in 
ripening,  and  it  is  believed  materially  and  permanently  to 
have  lessened  the  size  of  the  cane  first  introduced. 

Some  planters  make  their  cane  beds  every  sixteen  feet, 
planting  in  each,  two  rows  at  a  distance  of  four  feet,  and 
leaving  a  space  between  every  alternate  row  of  eleven  feet. 

There  is  a  great  advantage  in  these  wide  spaces,  as  the 
trash  (tops,  leaves,  and  all  dead  vegetable  matter  left  on  the 
ground),  and  bagasse  (megasse,  [Fr.]  the  residuum  of  the 
cane  after  expressing  the  juice),  can  all  be  buried  between 
the  widest  spaces,  and  remain  undisturbed  till  decomposed, 
without  prejudice  to  the  growing  crop.  On  light  or  sandy 
lands,  these  materials  may  be  burned  and  the  ashes  applied 
to  the  soil  ;  but  in  adhesive  or  clay  lands,  good  husbandry 
requiies  that  all  this  should  be  buried,  as  the  vegetable  de- 
cay (carbonaceous  matter  or  humus),  not  only  contains  every 
element  for  the  reproduction  of  the  future  crop,  but  it  effects 
a  mechanical  division  in  the  soil,  of  great  value  to  its  poro- 
sity, friability  and  productiveness.  Occasionally,  the  trash 
is  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  plant,  in  which  situation  the 
earth  is  kept  constantly  uj^on  it.  Some  place  the  cane  at  a 
distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  plant  corn  between  the 
rows,  which  matures  and  withers  before  the  cane  reaches 
its  full  size.  Others  sow  the  cow  pea,  while  still  occupied 
with  cane,  to  renovate  the  land  ;  but  neither  practice  seems 
to  meet  with  general  favor,  as  they  interfere  with  the  main 
purpose  of  planting,  which  is  to  produce  the  greatest  quau- 


THE    SUGAR    CANE.  211 

tity  of  mature  cane,  an  object  that  can  only  be  secured  bv 
its  thorough  and  exclusive  cultivation  on  the  field. 

The  land  should  be  deeply  broken  up  with  a  two  or  four 
horse  plow.  If  light  or  sandy,  it  may  be  plowed  flat ;  but 
if  stiff,  or  too  much  inclined  to  wet,  it  should  be  thrown  into 
beds.  Great  advantages  have  generally  followed  the  use 
of  the  subsoil  plo^v,  when  run  a  foot  below  the  bottom  of 
the  turning  furrow,  and  immediately  under  the  rou's  to  be 
occupied  by  the  cane.  This  is  the  more  important,  as  no 
opportunity  will  again  occur  for  breaking  up  this  portion 
of  the  field,  till  the  plant  is  renewed.  The  plowing  may 
be  done  at  any  convenient  time  between  October  and  March  ; 
but  on  plantations  where  the  har  resting  and  grinding  are 
going  forward,  it  is  seldom  the  plows  can  be  started  before 
the  last  of  December,  or  early  in  January.  The  plowing 
should  never  long  precede  the  planting,  unless  in  stiff  soils, 
which  need  the  meliorating  influence  of  the  atmosphere  to 
crumble  the  massive  clods  ;  nor  in  the.'^e,  beyond  the  period 
necessary  to  effect  this  object.  A  fine  bed  of  well-pulver- 
ized earth  is  thus  secured  for  the  plants  to  root  in,  and  afford 
its  nourishment  to  the  young  shoots. 

Planting. — This  may  be  done  any  time  between  Octo- 
ber and  April.  There  is  a  greater  certainty  of  a  good  crop 
if  in  the  ground  by  the  first  of  March.  The  occupations  of 
harvesting,  grinding,  plowing,  &c.,  will  usually  postpone  the 
commencement  of  planting  till  January.  On  the  land  pre- 
viously well  plowed,  open  a  wide  furrow  with  the  fluke  or 
double  mold-board  plow.  Clean  this  out  \vith  the  hoe  of  a 
uniform  width,  by  the  removal  of  any  clods  that  may  have 
fallen  in  after  the  plow.  With  the  increased  width  now 
usually  adopted  by  the  best  planters,  not  less  than  three 
parallel  seed  stalks  should  be  planted.  These  ought  to  be 
precisely  in  line,  and  at  least  four  inches  apart ;  and  it  is 
better  to  place  them  so  that  the  eyes  may  shoot  out  horizon- 
tally, and  thus  come  up  at  the  same  time  and  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  stalk.  Cover  with  sufficient  earth  to  prevent 
freezing  from  any  weather  that  may  follow.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  spring,  remove  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  one  or 
two  inches.  Light  spring  frosts  "will  not  otherwise  injure 
the  cane,  than  to  cut  down  the  young  shoots,  and  thus  de- 
lay the  grow'h  till  new  leaves  appear.  The  danger  is  in  re- 
moving so  much  of  the  earth  as  to  expose  the  roots  to 
freezing. 

Cultivating — Throughout  most  of  X«ouisiana,  the  cane 


SI  2  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

yields  three  crops  from  one  planting.  The  first  season  it  is 
called  plant  cane  and  subsequently,  ratootis.  In  the  tro- 
pical climates,  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere,  ratoons  will 
frequently  continue  to  yield  profusely  for  twelve  or  fifteen 
years.  On  new  and  peculiarly  favorable  spots  in  this  coun- 
try, the  ratoons  will  produce  equal  to  the  plant  cane  for 
several  years,  occasionally  for  six  or  eight ;  and  sometimes, 
as  on  the  prairies  of  Attakapas  and  Opelousas,  and  the 
higher  northern  range  of  its  cultivation,  it  requires  to  be 
replanted  every  year.  The  cultivation  is  alike  in  each,  after 
the  young  shoots  make  their  appearance  ;  previous  to  which, 
the  ratoons  shovild  be  barred  off  and  scraped  on  the  approach 
of  settled  warm  weather.  The  former  consists  in  running 
the  plow  near  the  rows  and  throwing  the  earth  from  them ; 
and  the  latter,  in  removing  the  soil  from  the  surface.  The 
sun's  influence  is  thus  sooner  felt  upon  the  roots,  and  an 
earlier  and  more  prolonged  growth  is  secured  to  the  cane. 
But  if  these  operations  are  performed  too  early  or  too  closely, 
subsequent  frosts  may  seriously  injure  the  plants.  Scrap- 
ing has  in  some  instances  been  partially  accomplished  by  a 
large  and  cumbersome  machine,  but  thus  far  it  seems  not  to 
have  been  generally  adopted.  One  could  probably  be  con- 
structed for  the  accomplishment  of  both  purposes,  that  would 
save  much  labor  and  produce   a  uniformly  beneficial  result. 

Soon  after  the  young  plants  have  made  their  appearance, 
the  earth  is  gradually  thrown  to  them  by  repeated  plowings, 
and  the  hoes  are  made  auxiliary  to  this  object,  and  to  keep- 
ing the  cane  clear  of  weeds.  There  is  a  great  advantage  in 
wide  planting,  as  the  two-horse  plow  can  be  used  for  culti- 
vatino-.  With  these,  a  greater  width  and  depth  of  furrow 
is  secured,  by  which  one  plowman  with  two  mules,  will 
perform  nearly  double  the  amount  of  work,  and  do  it  much 
more  thoroughly,  than  with  the  single  ploAv.  There  is 
generally  a  larger  growth  from  this  deep  and  efiicient  plow- 
ing ;  and  where  weeds,  and  especially  the  coco  grass  abound, 
great  economy  in  subdr  ing  these  is  secured  by  the  use  of 
the  large  plow,  as  it  is  thus  so  deeply  bvu-ied,  as  to  find  its 
way  to  the  surface  only  after  long  intervals. 

When  the  cane  has  acquired  such  a  height  and  expansion 
of  leaves  as  to  shade  the  ground  effectually,  w^hich  if  all 
preliminary  operations  have  been  well  performed,  will  be  by 
the  first  of  June,  the  last  furrows  are  thrown  to  the  roots  and 
the  earth  slopes  gradually  to  the  centre  ;  forming  an  eleva- 
ted support  lo  -'is  plcr.ts,  and  a  depression  between,  which 


THE    8^aA3.    CANE.  213 

serves  as  a  drain  for  the  surplus  rains.  Many  intelligent 
planters  run  a  large  subsoil  plow  two  or  three  times  be- 
tween  the  rows,  which  serves  to  loosen  the  soil  for  the 
greater  extension  of  the  roots,  and  this  also  more  effectually 
drains  the  land.  Throughout  the  operation  of  cultivating, 
after  the  ratoons  have  been  barred  otF  in  the  spring,  care 
should  be  observed  to  avoid  catting  or  breaking  the  roots. 
This  caution  is  applicable  to  all  plants,  but  especially  to  the 
cane,  which  requires  all  the  aid  from  its  roots  to  mature  be- 
fore the  approach  of  cold  weather. 

Deep  plowing,  both  in  breaking  up  and  in  cultivating,  is 
essential  to  good  sugar  crops,  on  all  lands  that  have  long 
been  subject  to  tillage.  On  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, fresh  upturned  soil,  exposed  to  the  surface  for  the  first 
time,  always  brinies  with  it  new  supplies  of  food  for  the 
plants ;  and  the  more  perfect  and  general  the  pulverization 
of  the  soil,  the  greater  is  the  space  afforded  for  a  range 
to  the  roots.  Good  implements  and  good  plowmen  are  essen- 
tial preliminaries  to  a  good  sugar  crop. 

Harvesting. — In  the  West  Indies  and  most  other  foreign 
States  where  grown,  the  cane  fully  ripens.  This  is  true, 
also,  with  some  of  that  on  Tampa  Bay,  Florida,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  which  has  recently  been  considerably  extended. 
But  in  Louisiana,  the  cane  never  fully  matures.  It  begins 
to  ripen  at  the  foot  of  the  stalks  in  August  or  September, 
and  advances  upwards  at  the  rate  of  about  six  inches  per 
week.  The  proper  period  for  cutting,  would  be  just  previ- 
ous to  the  heavy  or  black  frosts  {^freezes  they  are  generally 
called) ;  but  as  it  requires  several  weeks  to  secure  tli£  crop, 
much  of  which  would  be  liable  to  great  injury  if  left  beyond 
the  proper  period,  the  harvesting  is  generally  commenced 
by  the  middle  of  October,  and  steadily  followed  up  till  com- 
pleted. This  is  done  by  striking  off  the  top  (unripened 
stalks),  then  stripping  the  leaves  by  a  single  downward 
stroke  of  the  knife  on  either  side,  and  another  blow  severs 
one  or  more  stalks  at  the  foot.  The  cane  is  then  thrown 
into  carts  and  hauled  to  the  mill,  where  it  should  at  once 
be  ground,  boiled,  granulated  and  put  up  for  market. 

The  moment  of  interference  with  the  nat\  al  condition  oi 
.he  plant,  is  the  signal  for  breaking  up  its  normal  or  healthy 
condition,  and  sending  its  elements  rapidly  forward  on  a 
new  ca.reer  of  change.  The  exquisitely-arranged  crystals 
of  sugar,  which  may  be  seen  with  the  microit«cope,  closely 
wedged  in  their  appropriate  cells  withii   the  siliciouB  rind  of 


214  AMERICAN    AGRICCLTCEE. 

the  Stalk,  are  susceptible  to  the  slightest  alteration  in  any 
portion  of  the  plant.  By  cutting  it  at  the  bottom,  the  ail 
gains  access  to  the  exposed  cells,  the  sugar  combines  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  and  induces  the  first  step  to- 
wards  decomposition,  called  the  vinous  fermentation,  by 
which  alcohol  is  developed.  A  second  speedily  follows, 
termed  the  acetic  (the  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  vinegar), 
and  this,  if  not  arrested,  soon  terminates  in  the  destructive 
or  putrefactive  fermentation,  by  which  a!'  the  useful  or  nu- 
tritive  properties  of  the  cane  are  destroyec,  and  its  materials 
are  converted  into  their  original  elements,  or  are  Avorthless 
for  any  purpose  but  manure.  This  change  goes  forward 
slowly  \vith  the  sugar  cane,  while  the  temperature  is  low, 
but  rapidly  as  it  becomes  elevated. 

Slight  frosts  in  autumn  are  beneficial  rather  than  injurious, 
as  by  deadening  the  leaves  and  tops  they  check  vegetation, 
and  stimulate  rather  than  retard  the  ripening  of  the  plant. 
When  severe  frosts  are  apprehended,  it  will  justify  cutting 
the  cane  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  matrassing  as  before  de- 
scribed, under  the  head  of  the  preservation  of  cane.  When 
thus  shielded  from  the  approach  of  the  elements  by  the  over- 
lying cane,  and  at  a  period  when  the  average  temperature  is 
near  the  freezing  point,  scarcely  any  change  is  perceptible 
for  many  weeks.  The  same  result  follows  when  remaining 
slightly  frozen  for  an  indefinite  period.  But  the  mo- 
ment a  thaw  commences,  the  nitrogenized  matter  of  the 
stalk  mingles  with  the  sugar,  through  the  rupture  caused 
by  the  expansion  of  the  cells  from  frost,  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
gains  access,  and  fermentation  begins,  after  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  convert  the  saccharine  matter  into  sugar.  Molas- 
ses, alcohol  and  vineofar  are  the  only  forms  Avhich  the  crys- 
taline  matter  of  the  cane  can  then  be  made  to  assume. 

The  amount  of  the  products  of  cane,  depends  on  several 
circmnstances,  the  kinds  planted,  the  soil,  the  season,  man- 
ner of  grinding,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  in  its  conver- 
sion into  stigar. 

The  quantity  of  the  crop  of  sugar  varies  from  500  to  -3,000 
pounds  per  acre,  the  last  amount  only  being  realized  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances.  In  good  seasons,  and  \vith 
skillful  treatment,  2,000  pounds  are  often  obtained  ;  but  owing 
to  adverse  causes,  and  negligent  management,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  average  crop  of  the  country  comes  up  to  800 
pounds  per  acre. 

Tlie  composition  of  cane  of  a  medium  quality,  is  water. 


THE    SUGAR    CANE.  215 

72;  woody  fibre,  10;  and  sugar,  18;  in  ever j'  10 J  parts; 
yet,  notwithstanding  the  water  and  sugar  (juice)  constitute 
90  per  cent,  of  the  cane,  the  best  horizontal  rollers  have 
been  made  to  express  from  70  to  75  per  cent,  only,  while 
'.he  more  imperfect  grinding  often  reduces  this  below  50 
per  cent.  It  is  estimated  that  the  average  product  is  about 
oG  per  cent,  of  juice,  leaving  34-90ths  or  more  than  one 
third  of  the  entire  quantity  still  m  the  bagasse,  and  wholly 
unavailable  for  any  economical  purpose.  This  shows  a  great 
deficiency  in  the  mechanical  operations  of  sugar-making ; 
and  it  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  we  knoAV  that  the  mi- 
nute grains  of  sugar  exist  as  perfec.  in  the  cane,  as  in  any 
subsequent  state  of  its  granulation.  Boussingault  asserti, 
t  hat  he  has  seen  the  juice  of  the  cane,  iindei  the  skillful  treat 
nient  of  the  chemist  yield  nothing  but  crystalizable  sugar. 

Value  of  the  products  of  cane  for  animal  food. — Large 
quantities  of  the  molasses  have  heretofore  been  used  for  dis- 
tilling into  alcohol,  but  the  manufacture  of  this  has  mate- 
rially lessened  of  late,  and  a  salutary  change  has  been  made 
in  its  disposal.  When  it  would  not  bring  a  remunerating 
price  for  exportation,  as  has  sometimes  been  the  case  in  the 
West  Indies,  it  has  been  mixed  with  other  materials,  and 
fed  to  stock.  It  is  healthful  and  exceedingly  fattening  to 
animals.  Its  great  value  for  conversion  into  fat  will  be 
readily  seen,  by  comparing  the  elements  of  eacli.  Sugar, 
which  is  identical  Avith  syrup  and  molasses,  except  that  the 
two  latter  contain  more  ^vater,  and  often  some  salts  and 
other  impurities,  in  suspension,  has  been  analyzed  by  several 
chemists,  with  slightly  varying  results.  According  to  the 
following  authorities,  it  consists  in  every  100  parts,  of 

Lussac  St,  Thenard.   Berzelius.  Prout.  Ure. 

Oxygen,  50.63         49.856         53.35         50.33 

Carbon,  42.47         43.265         39.99         46.38 

Hydrogen,  6.90  6.875  %.&&  6.29 

Fat,  according  to  Chevreul,  consists  of  79  carbon  ;  11.4  hy- 
drogen ;  and  9.6  of  oxygen.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen,  that  fat 
and  molasses,  are  identical  in  their  constituents,  though  va 
rjing  in  their  relative  proportions  ;  and  it  Avould  be  fairly 
inferable  from  theory,  as  it  has  been  found  in  practice,  that  no 
food  is  better  suited  to  the  easy  and  rapid  conversion  into 
animal  fat,  than  sugar  and  molasses. 

TJie  process  of  Sugar-making ,  is  one  ratlier  belonging 
to  the  arts,  than  to  agriculture  ;  and   r.y  limits  will  prevenl 


<316  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

any  description  of  it.  Much  attention  has  been  devoted  to 
the  subject  within  the  last  few  years,  and  great  improve- 
ments have  been  the  result.  But  when  fully  carried  out  in 
detail,  so  large  an  expenditure  is  required,  as  to  preclude 
their  adoption  by  the  mass  of  moderate  planters.  The  ap- 
paratus of  Messrs.  Degrand,  Derosne,  Cail,  E-illieux,  and 
others,  including  defecators,  steam-jackets,  Dumout  filters, 
vacuum  pans,  steam-j)ipes,  and  other  improvements,  may  in 
whole  or  in  part  be  advantageous  to  the  large  planters,  and 
by  many  of  these  they  have  been  adopted. 

It  is  much  to  be  desired,  that  the  two  objects  of  raising 
the  cane  and  converting  it  into  sugar,  could  be  separated, 
like  most  other  purely  agricultural  and  mechanical  opera- 
tions. This  change  in  the  arrangement  of  sugar  produc- 
tion, would  effectually  break  up  the  aristocratic  feature 
which  characterizes  our  present  sugar  estates,  and  which  is 
at  such  utter  variance  with  nearly  all  the  other  branches  of 
our  agricultural  pursuits.  Sugar  estates  might  then  be 
divided  among  smaller  proprietors,  each  of  whom,  by  hav- 
ing a  common  market  for  his  cane,  would  receive  its  full 
value,  whether  it  were  one  or  one  thousand  acres.  We 
should  thus  witness  an  improvement  in  both  the  rearing  of 
the  cane  and  its  manufacture,  which  is  not  likely  to  be  so 
fully  or  speedily  attained  in  any  other  way. 

Manures  for  the  cane. — If  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  Louis- 
iana and  other  fertile  lands  are  properly  managed,  they  will 
never  become  exhausted  by  the  cultivation  of  cane.  Tired 
of  it  they  may  be,  as  land  is  of  any  one  constantly-recurring 
crop ;  but  exhaustion  will  never  be  realized,  if  the  elements 
constituting  the  stalk,  and  not  converted  into  sugar,  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil.  This  is  done,  simply  by  burying  the  ba- 
gasse and  trash.  If  the  former  is  burned,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case  \vhere  there  is  deficiency  of  fuel,  the  ashes  should 
be  carried  to  the  field.  The  elements  of  the  sugar,  which 
is  the  only  portion  necessarily  or  permanently  Avithdrawn 
from  the  field,  are  sitch  as  abound  in  the  atmosphere,  rains 
and  dews,  and  are  profusely  brought  to  it,  by  every  passing 
breeze  and  every  falling  shower.  The  inorganic  or  earthy 
portions  are,  therefore,  the  essential  constituents  to  be  return- 
ed to  it.  To  show  the  proportions  of  these,  the  analysis  of 
\he  ash  of  the  cave  is  subjoined,  as  given  by  Mr.  StenhousS; 


THK    SUSAR    CANE, 


217 


ANALYSIS    OR    THE   ASHES    OF    THE    SUGAR    CANE. 


Silicia 

Phonph'c  acid 
Sulphuric  acid 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potassa  

Soda !  .... ! 

Chlo'.  potass'm    3.27) 
Chlo'.  sodium..    2.02 


1 


45.P 
3.76 
6.66 
9.16 
3.66 

•2o.o0 


42.90 
7.99 

10.94 

13.20 
9.88 

12.01 
1.39 

1.69 


3 

46.46 
8.23 
4.65 
8.91 
4.50 

10.63 

7.41 
9.21 


41.37 
4.09 

10.93 
9.11 
6.92 

15.99 

8.96 
2.13 


o  I  6 

4'6i49|.'j0.00 
S.lOl  6.56 
7..52  6  40 
5  78  5.09 
15.61]13.01 
11.93  13.69 
0.57     1.33 

,  3.95!   3.92 


8    I    9 


45.13 

4.88 
7.74 
4.49 
11.90 
16.97 
1.64 

7  25 


17.64 

7.371 
7.97 
2.34 
3.93 
32.93 

16.70! 
17.12! 


26.38 
6.20 
6.03 
5.8' 
5.48 

31.21 

11.14 
7.64 


10  j  11 

~~aO  48.73 
04  2.90 
.31:  5.35 
64  11.62 
63  5.61 
09    7.46 


...  16.06 
4.29    2.271 


12 

8.01 
1.93 

14.36 
5.30 
11.14 

0.84 
3.83 


"  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  were  very  fine,  full-grown  canes,  from 
Trinidad,  consisting  of  stalks  and  leaves,  but  without  the  roots, 
Nos.  5,  6,  and  7,  were  similar  canes  from  Berbice  ;  No.  8,  from 
Demarara  ;  No.  9,  of  full-grown  canes,  but  with  leaves,  from 
the  Island  of  Grenada;  No.  10,  from  Trelawny,  Jamaica, 
consisting  of  transparent  canes  in  full  blossom,  grown  about 
six  miles  from  the  sea,  and  manured  with  cattle  dung  ;  No. 
11,  of  transparent  canes,  from  St.  James',  Jamaica,  growing 
about  two  hundred  yards  from  the  sea,  being  old  ratoons, 
and  also  manured  with  cattle  dung  ;  No.  12,  young,  trans- 
parent canes,  three  and  a  half  miles  from  the  sea,  and  ma- 
nured with  cattle  dung,  guano  and  marl. — Pi'of.  Shepard.'^ 

Herapath  foimd  that  1,000  grains  of  the  cane  when  burned, 
left  but  7i  grains  of  a.sh,  which  was  made  up  of  inorganic 
bases,  in  nearly  the  following  proportions,  viz.  :  silicia,  1.8; 
phcsphate  of  lime,  3.4  ;  oxide  of  iron  and  clay,  .2  ;  carbonate 
of  potash,  1.5  ;  sulphate  of  potash,  .15  ;  carbonate  of  magne- 
sia, .4;  and  sulphate  of  lime,  .1. 

•  The  amount  of  fresh  cut  cane  from  an  acre  is  sometimes 
enormous,  exceding,  probably,  in  some  instances,  30  tons ; 
but  where  the  trash  and  bagasse  are  restored  to  the.  soil, 
nothing  more  is  required  to  sustain  its  fertility ;  yet  there 
may  still  be  a  failure  of  the  crop  from  the  neglect  of  rota- 
tion. Many  throw  out  their  land  to  accomplish  this  object 
by  rest;  and  while  thus  lying  apparently  idle,  an  important 
change  is  wrought  in  the  soil  by  the  action  of  a  new  class 
of  vegetable  roots,  the  ^veeds  and  such  chance  vegetation 
as  may  happen  to  occupy  the  field,  which  rapidly  prepares 
it  for  its  accustomed  crop.  But  this  end  is  attained  more 
certainly,  by  a  dense  covering  of  such  plants  as  may  be  best 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  Some  alternate  with  corn,  but  this 
will  be  seen  to  violate  a  cardinal  principle  laid  down  under 
the  head  of  rotation,  as  it  approaches  too  nearly  to  the  cane 
in  its  character.     Corn  may  take   its  place  in  the  fields,  but 

10 


218  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

with  far  less  benefit,  regarded  as  a  feature  of  'ix>tation,  tk  ji 
if  they  were  occupied  1  y  the  cow  pea  or  some  other  plants, 
widely  differing  in  their  peculiarities  from  the  cane.  When 
the  pea  has  been  on  the  ground  for  one  or  two  years,  and 
especially  if  the  crop  has  been  turned  under,  an  immense 
growth  of  the  cane  has  followed. 

Where  manures  are  sought  for  exhausted  fields,  the  table 
of  the  ash  of  cane  would  indicate  that  potash,  in  some  form, 
is  highly  essential,  as  well  as  lime,  salt,  the  sulphates  and 
phosphates.  These,  and  the  other  fertilizing  materials,  can 
generally  be  procured  in  adequate  proportions  from  stable 
manures,  if  the  latter  are  to  be  had ;  but  where  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  them,  the  land  may  be  restored,  by  adding  most 
or  all  of  the  following  materials. 

Potash  is  one  of  the  leading  manures  required  by  the 
cane  ;  and  this  may  be  procured  from  various  sources. 
Ashes  will  afford  it  with  the  most  economy,  and  in  the 
greatest  abundance.  It  is  yielded  by  the  slow  decay  of 
vegetable  matters,  and  stable  manures.  It  is  also  procured 
from  the  decomposition  of  many  species  of  rocks  and 
stones.  Lime,  marl  or  ground  shells.  These  are  mostly 
pure  carbonate,  with  sometimes  a  slight  addition  of  the 
phosphate  of  lime.  Immense  quantities  of  these  exist  in 
large  deposUes,  throughout  the  lower  delta  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  with  such  a  tendency  towards  decomposition,  as 
to  be  easily  broken  down  by  an  efiicient  mill.  Gypsum 
(sulphate  of  lime)  is  an  ap^iropriate  and  economical  manure, 
Ground  bones  (phosphate  of  lime) ;  salt  (chloride  of  so- 
dium), and  charcoal,  are  all  etticient  manures  for  cane. 

Drainage,  deep,  thorough  under-drainage,  is  peculiarly 
necessary  in  preparing  the  sugar  lands  of  Louisiana  to  yield 
their  utmost  burthen,  and  choicest  quality  of  sugar  canii. 
Drainage  should  not  be  limited  to  surface  ditches.  It  should 
embrace  a  systematic  net-work  of  nnder-drains,  Avith  tiles 
deeply  laid  below  the  surface,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
sub-soil  plow,  even  when  buried  in  he  deepest  depressions 
between  the  rows.  All  ""he  advantages  enumerated  under  the 
head  of  draining  (Chap.  IV.)  will  apply  here.  The  cane 
on  such  thoroughly-drained  lands,  will  commence  growing 
earlier  in  the  spring  than  on  tlie  undrained ;  it  will  grow 
faster  during  summer,  it  will  continue  growing  longer  in  au- 
tumn, ripen  earlier  and  mature  a  larger  portion  of  the  stalk, 
and  yield  a  sounder,  richer  juice.  Tiie  expense  and  constan; 
repair  of  s  iiface  drains  will  be  saved ;  the  large  proportion 


MAPLE    SUGAR.  2111 

of  the  field  now  taken  up  by  them  and  their  banks,  wjl  be 
avoided  ;  there  will  be  no  damage  lo  the  crop  from  exces- 
sive rains  ;  no  baking  on  the  surface,  or  washing  ot  the  fmei 
particles  of  the  earth  into  the  ditches.  The  land  taved  by 
this  system  would  pay  for  carrying  it  out ;  and  sometimes, 
even  a  single  crop  would  full)  repay  it,  which  might  other- 
wise be  lost  by  long  continued  rains.  The  cane  would 
always  be  better,  and  could  by  no  possibility  be  worse  than 
it  now  is.  Where  there  are  stiff  lands,  and  the  object  could 
be  achieved  by  no  other  means  than  by  the  disposal  of  one 
half  the  plantation,  it  is  probable  the  annual  net  profit  de- 
rivable from  the  remainder,  when  thus  improved,  would  be 
greater  than  the  whole  without  it.  A  system  of  under- 
drainage,  would  of  course,  necessarily  imply  the  use  of  lead- 
ing ditches  and  draining  wheels,  wherever  adopted  through- 
out the  low-lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Until  this  greai 
desideratum  can  be  accomplished,  the  most  complete  arrano^e- 
ment  of  surface  drains  should  be  fully  carried  out. 

MAPLE  SUGAR. 

The  Sugar,  Rock,  or  Hard  Maple  Tree  (Acer  sacckart' 
num,  Fig.  46),  is  among  our  most  beautiful 
shade,  and  most  valuable  forest  trees  ;  and  it 
stands  next  to  the  sugar  cane  in  the  readi- 
ness and  abundance  with  which  it  yields 
the  materials  for  cane  sugar.  When  refined, 
there  is  no  difference  either  in  appearance 
or  quality,  between  the  sugar  from  the  cane, 
the  maple  or  the  beet.  In  the  brown  state, 
Fig.  46.  tliG  Condition  in  which  it  is  sent  to  market, 

when  made  with  care  and  formed  into  solid  cakes,  it  retains 
its  peculiar  moisture  and  rich  aromatic  flavor,  which  makes 
it  more  acceptable  to  the  nibblers  ol  sweets,  than  the  most 
refined  and  highly  scented  bon-bons  of  the  confectioner.  The 
quantity  made  in  this  country  is  very  large  ;  thouo-h  from  the 
fact  of  its  domestic  consumption,  and  its  se'dom  reachino- 
the  principal  markets,  there  is  no  estimate  of  he  ao-oregate 
production  which  will  come  very  near  the  truth.  The 
product  for  Vermont  alone,  for  184-5,  was  estimated  at  over 
10,000,000  lbs.  The  quantity  supposed  to  be  annually  sold 
in  the  city  of  New  York  exceeds  10,000  hhds..  Both  the 
sugar  and  syrup  are  used  for  every  purpose  for  which  the 
sugar  from  the  cane  is  employed. 

The  sugar  maple  extends  from  the  most  northerly  limits 


«!20  AMERICAN    AGE.ICULTURB. 

of  Maine  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  to  .he  banks  of 
tlie  Ohio.  Farther  south  it  is  rarely  found.  The  cane  and 
maple  approach  each  other,  but  scarcely  meet  ;  and  never 
intermingle  as  rivals  in  the  peculiar  region  which  nature 
has  assigned  to  each.  In  some  sections  of  the  country,  the 
sugar  maple  usurps  almost  the  entire  soil,  standing  side  by 
side  like  thick  ranks  of  corn,  yet  large  and  lofty,  and  among 
the  noblest  specimens  of  the  forest.  Immense  quantities  of 
these  are  to  be  found  throughout  the  original  forests  of  our 
northern,  western,  and  middle  States.  I  have  seen  them  for 
miles  in  extent,  near  the  borders  of  Lake  Superior — a  con- 
tinuous wilderness  of  the  sugar  maple.  I  have  also  seen 
them  in  Wisconsiji,  near  Lake  Michigan,  as  they  are  found 
in  the  natural  sugar  orchards  of  that  beautiful  State.  In 
these,  they  grow  in  open  laud  among  the  rich  native  grasses, 
their  tops  graceful  and  bushy,  like  the  cultivated  tree  ;  and 
but  for  their  greater  numbers  and  extent,  and  their  more 
picturesque  grouping,  one  "would  think  the  hand  of  taste  and 
civilization  had  directed,  Avhat  nature  alone  has  there  ac- 
complished. Amidst  those  beautiful  orchards,  or  in  the 
depths  of  those  dense  dark  woods,  the  Indian  wigwam  and 
the  settler's  rude  cabin  may  be  seen,  filled  with  the  solid 
cakes  and  mo-koks,*  each  of  M'hich  contain  from  30  to  60 
lbs.,  of  their  coarse-grained,  luscious  sugar. 

The  season  for  draiving  and  crystalizing  the  sap  is  in 
early  spring,  u'heu  the  bright  sunn)''  days  and  clear  frosty 
Qights  give  it  a  full  and  rapid  circulation.  The  larger 
trees  should  be  selected,  and  tapped  by  an  inch  augur,  to  the 
depth  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  the  hole  inclining  downward  to 
hold  the  sap.  At  the  base  of  this,  another  should  be  made 
from  three  eighths  to  half  an  inch  diameter,  in  which  a  tube 
of  elder  or  sumach  should  be  closely  fitted  to  lead  it  off.  A 
lude  contrivance  for  catching  the  sap  is  by  troughs,  gen- 
erally made  of  the  easily-wrought  poplar  ;  but  it  is  better  to 
use  vessels  which  admit  of  thorough  cleaning,  and  these 
may  be  suspended  by  a  bail  or  ]  andle  from  a  peg  driven 
into  the  tree  above.  When  the  sugar  season  is  over,  the 
holes  ought  to  be    closely  plugged,  and  the  head  cut  off 

*  I\Io-kok — -\n  Indian  sack  or  basket,  with  flatti^^h  sides  and  rounded 
ends,  similar  in  ashion  to  a  lady's  travelling  satchel.  They  are 
made  perfectly  tiijht,  from  strips  of  white  birch  bark,  sowed  with 
thongs  of  elm.  Many  of  ;he  sap  buckets  are  made  of  the  same 
material,  but  different  in  form.  The  small  mo-koks,  tastefully  crna- 
mented  with  various-colored  porcupine  quills  and  filled  with  maple 
sugar,  are  sold  as  toys. 


MAPLE    SUGAR.  2%k 

evenly  with  the  bark,  which  thus  soon  grcws  over  the 
wound.  If  carefully  managed,  several  holes  m«,y  be  made 
in  a  thrifty  tree  without  any  apparent  injuiy  to  it.  The 
barbarous,  slovenly  mode  of  half  girdling  ihe  trunk  with  an 
axe,  soon  destroys  the  tree. 

The  sap  is  collected  daily  with  buckets,  which  are  carried 
to  the  boilers  on  the  neck,  by  a  milk-man's  yoke.  Ifthequan 
tity  be  great  and  remote  from  the  sugar  fires,  a  hogshead  may 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  This  is  placed  on  a  sled,  with  a 
large  hole  at  the  top,  covered  with  a  cloth  strainer,  or  a 
tunnel  similarly  guarded,  is  inserted  in  the  bungl  ole.  The 
primitive  mode  of  arranging  the  sugary,  is  with  large  re- 
ceiving troughs  placed  near  or  partially  within  the  cabin, 
and  capable  of  holding  several  hundred  gallons  of  sap.  The 
boiling  kettles  are  .suspended  over  the  fires,  on  long  poles 
supported  by  crotches. 

The  process  of  sugar  making  1  give  from  the  statement 
of  Mr.  Wood  worth,  of  Watertown,  N.  Y.,  who  obtained  the 
premium  from  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  for  the  best 
sample  of  maple  sugar,  exhibited  at  the  annual  fair  of  1844. 
The  committee,  who  awarded  the  premium,  say  "  they  have 
never  seen  so  fine  a  sample,  either  in  the  perfection  of  the 
granulation,  or  in  the  extent  to  which  the  refining  process 
has  been  carried  ;  the  whole  coloring  matter  is  extracted, 
and  the  peculiar  flavor  of  maple  sugar  is  completely  eradi- 
cated, leaving  the  sugar  fully  equal  to  the  double  refined 
cane  loaf  sugar.  The  statement  says  :  "  In  the  first  place, 
I  make  my  buckets,  tubs  and  kettles  all  perfectly  clean.  I 
boil  the  sap  in  a  potash  kettle,  set  in  an  arch  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  edge  of  the  kettle  is  defended  all  around  from 
the  fire.  This  is  continued  through  the  day,  taking  care  not 
to  have  anything  in  the  kettle  that  will  give  color  to  the 
sap,  and  to  keep  it  Avell  skimmed.  At  night  I  leave  fire 
enough  under  the  kettle  to  boil  the  sap  nearly,  or  quite  to 
syrup,  by  the  next  morning.  I  then  take  it  out  of  the  kettle, 
and  strain  it  through  a  flannel  cloth  into  a  tub,  if  it  is  sweet 
enough  ;  if  not,  I  put  it  'n  a  caldron  kettle,  which  I  have 
hung  on  a  pole  in  such  a  manner  that  I  can  swing  it  on  and 
off"  the  fire  at  pleasure,  and  finish  boiling,  then  strain  it  into 
the  tub,  and  let  it  stand  till  the  next  morning.  I  then  take 
this,  and  the  syrup  in  the  kettle,  and  put  it  altogether  in  the 
caldron,  and  sugar  it  off.  To  clarify  100  lbs.  of  sugar,  I  use 
the  whites  of  five  or  six  eggs,  well  beaten,  about  one  quart 
oi  new  milk,  and  a  spoonful  of  saleratus,  all  well  mixed 


222  AMERICAN    AGKIJULTURE. 

with  syrup  before  it  is  scalding  hot.  I  keep  a  moderate  fire 
directly  under  the  caldron  until  the  scum  is  all  raised ;  then 
skim  it  off  clean,  taking  care  not  to  let  it  boil  so  as  to  rise 
in  the  kettle  before  I  have  done  skimming  it ;  when  it  is 
sugared  off,  leaving  it  so  damp  that  it  will  drain  a  little.  1 
let  it  remain  in  the  kettle  until  it  is  well  granulated  ;  I  then 
put  it  into  boxes,  made  smallest  at  the  bottom,  that  will  hold 
from  50  to  70  lbs.,  having  a  thm  piece  of  bo.'  .-d  fitted  in,  two 
or  three  inches  above  the  bottom,  which  is  bored  full  of 
small  holes  to  let  the  molasses  drain  through,  which  I  keep 
drawn  off  by  a  tap  through  the  bottom.  I  put  on  the  top  of 
the  sugar  in  the  box,  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  clean,  damp 
cloth,  and  over  that  a  board  well  fitted  in,  so  as  to  exclude 
the  air  from  the  sugar.  After  it  has  nearly  done  draining, 
I  dissolve  it,  and  sugar  it  off  a2;ain,  wing  through  the  same 
process  in  clarifying  and  draining  as  before." 

When  sap  is  not  immediately  boiled,  a  small  quantity  of 
lime  water  should  be  added  to  check  fermentation,  which 
prevents  the  granulation  of  the  syrup.  A  single  tree  has 
yielded  24  gallons  of  sap  in  one  day,  making  over  seven 
pounds  of  sugar  ;  and  in  one  season  it  made  33  lbs.  Trees 
will  give  an  average  of  two  to  six  pounds  annually. 

TOBACCO    cNicotiana,  Fig.  47). 

This  narcotic  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  and  has  been  an 
object  of  extensive  use  and  culti- 
vation in  this  country  since  the 
first  settlementjOf  Virginia,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century.  It 
formed  for  a  long  time  the  princi- 
pal export  from  that  colony  and 
Maryland.  It  is  still  largely  cul- 
tivated there,  and  has  since  become 
an  object  of  considerable  attention 
in  the  middle  and  western  States, 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  northern. 
Fig747.^'  ""^  '^^^^  ^^^^  ""'^y  ^^  ^  light,  loainy 
sand  or  alluvial  earth,  well  drained  and  fertile.  New  land, 
free  from  weeds  and  full  of  saline  matters,  is  best  for  it ; 
and  next  ta  this,  is  a  rich  grass  sod  which  has  long  remained 
untilled.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  beds  which  must  be 
kept  clean,  as  the  plant  is  small  and  slow  of  growth  in  the 
emly  stages  of  i  i  existence,  and  easilj  smothered  by  weeds. 


TOBACCO.  223 

l(  not  ncv.  iy  cleared,  the  beds  ought  tj  ie  burned  with  a 
heavy  coating  of  brush. 

Cultivatiori. — Pulverize  the  beds  .'inely,  and  sow  the  seed 
at  the  rate  of  a  table  spoonful  to  every  two  square  rods. 
I'he  seeds  are  so  minute,  that  sowing  evenly  is  scarcely 
attainable,  luiless  by  first  mixing  with  three  or  four  times 
their  bulk  of  fine  moid.  This  should  be  done  sufficiei.+ly  early, 
to  secure  proper  maturity  to  the  plants  in  time  for  trans- 
planting, (by  the  last  of  February  or  early  in  March  south 
of  the  Ohio,  and  about  the  first  of  April  north  of  it),  cover- 
ing lightly  and  completely  rolling  or  treading  down  the 
earth.  The  plant  appears  in  15  or  20  days,  and  will  be  fit 
for  transplanting  in  six  or  eight  weeks.  This  should  be 
done  in  damp  weather,  and  the  plants  set  singly,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  each  way.  The  after 
culture  is  like  that  of  corn,  and  consists  in  frequently  stirring 
the  ground  with  the  plow  or  cultivator  and  hoe,  and  keep- 
ing down  weeds.  The  places  of  such  plants  as  fail,  or  are 
blighted,  should  be  at  once  filled  up,  and  all  worms  de- 
stroyed. 

Tlie  pi-iming,  topinng,  suckering  and  uvrming  are 
necessary  operations.  The  first  consists  in  breaking  ofi 
four  or  five  of  the  leaves  next  the  ground  which  are  value- 
less ;  the  second  is  taking  off  the  top  to  prevent  the  seed 
stalk  from  developing,  and  is  regulated  by  the  kind  of  tobac- 
co. "  The  first  topping  will  always  admit  of  a  greater  num- 
ber of  leaves  being  left  ;  and  in  proportion  as  the  season  ad- 
vances, fewer  leaves  should  be  left.  The  heavier  kinds  of 
tobacco  are  generally  topped  early  in  the  season,  to  twelve 
leaves,  then  to  ten,  and  still  later  to  eight.  The  lighter  kinds 
are  topped  to  a  greater  number  of  leaves.  If  the  soil  is 
light,  fewer  leaves  should  be  left."  (^Beatty.)  Suckering 
consists  in  breaking  off  the  young  side  shoots,  which  should 
be  done  immediately  after  they  make  their  appearance. 
Worms  of  very  large  size  and  peculiarly  destructive  to  the 
finer  qualities  of  tobacco,  abound  during  a  part  of  the  sea- 
son. These  can  only  be  removed  by  repeatedly  picking  off 
by  hand. 

•  Harvesting  may  be  commenced  with  such  plants  as  nave 
matured,  which  is  indicated  by  greenish  yellow  spots  on  the 
leaves.  This  will  generally  occur  in  August  at  the  South, 
and  in  September  at  the  North.  The  stem  of  the  plant  is 
cut  near  the  surface  and  allowed  to  'vilt  on  the  ground,  but 
ttot  'ji'posed  to  a  hot  sun.     If  there  is  danger  of  this,  cut 


224  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

only  in  the  morniLg  or  evening,  and  when  pi  »pei  y  wilted, 
which  will  be  in  a  few  hours,  it  may  be  carefully  carried  to 
the  drying  house,  where  it  should  be  hung  up  by  twine  tied 
to  the  butt  end  of  the  stalk,  and  suspended  over  poles  at  dry- 
ing distances  with  the  head  downwards.  The  ckculation  of 
air  is  necessary  in  the  dry  houses,  but  there  n  ast  be  entire 
safety  against  storms  or  winds,  as  the  leaves  are  liable  to 
break  by  agitation,  and  rain  seriously  injures  them.  AVhen 
the  stem  in  the  leaf  has  become  hard,  it  is  sufficiently  dried. 
This  takes  place  in  good  weather,  in  two  or  three  months. 
The  leaves  may  be  stripped  in  damp  Aveather  when  they  will 
not  crumble,  and  carefully  bound  in  small  bundles,  termed 
hands,  and  then  boxed  for  shipment. 

The  varieties  of  tobacco  are  numerous,  not  less  than 
twelve  being  cultivated  in  America.  They  soon  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  different  soils  and  climates  where  they  are 
grown.  The  most  fragrant  are  produced  in  Cuba,  and  these 
are  exclusively  used  for  cigars.  They  command  several 
times  the  j)rice  of  ordinary  kinds.  The  tobacco  of  Maryland 
and  the  adjoining  States  is  peculiarly  rich  and  high  flavored, 
and  is  most  esteemed  for  chewing. 

Much  of  the  peculiarity  of  tastf^  and  aroma,  and  the  con- 
sequent value  of  tobacco,  depends  on  the  soil,  and  the  prepa- 
ration or  sweating  of  the  plant  after  drying.  The  former 
should  not  be  too  rich,  and  never  highly  manured,  as  the 
flavor  is  thereby  materially  injured,  though  the  product  will 
be  increased.  Yet  it  is  an  exhausting  crop,  as  is  seen  by 
the  large  quantity  and  the  analysis  of  the  ash  ;  and  the  soil 
requires  a  constant  renewal  of  well-fermented  manures,  and 
particularly  the  saline  ingredients,  to  j)revent  exhaustion. 
,  Tobacco  contains  nitrogen  and  the  alkalies  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  but  very  little  of  the  phosphates.  The  ash  is  shown 
in  the  analysis  of  Fresenius  and  Will,  to  consist,  of  potash, 
30.67 ;  lime  (mostly  with  a  little  magnesia),  33.36  ;  gyp- 
Euiu,  5.60 ;  common  salt,  5.95  ;  phosphates,  6.03 ;  sihca, 
18.39;  in  100  parts  of  the  ash.  The  inferior  kinds  contain 
a  large  proportion  of  lime,  and  the  superior  [ualities,  the 
largest  of  potash. 

The  customary  method  of  burning  fuel  on  the  beds  de- 
Bigued  for  tobacco,  and  the  use  of  freshly  cleared  and  burnt 
lands,  by  which  the  largest  crops  of  the  best  quality  are  ob- 
tained, shows  conclusively  the  proper  treatment  required. 
By  each  of  these  operations,  the  gromid  is  not  only  loosened 
in  the  best  possible  manner,  ;.!  d  all   insects  and  weeds  di' 


INDIGO. 


225 


etroyed,  but  the  salts  and  especiaLy  potash  in  an  available 
form,  are  produced  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Some  ot  the 
best  soils  in  Virginia  have  been  ruined  by  a  constant  succession 
of  tobacco  crops,  the  necessary  result  of  neglect  in  supplying 
them  with  the  constituents  of  fertility  so  largely  abstracted. 
The  yield  per  acre  is  generally  from  1,500  to  2,500  lbs.  Ifis 
a  profitable  crop  when  the  besi  kinds  are  cultivated,  under 
favorable  circumstances  of  soil  and  climate.  The  total  esti- 
mated product  of  the  United  States  for  1843,  was  over  i8o,- 
000,000  lbs.,  of  which  Kentucky  furnished  52,000,000,  and 
Virginia  nearly  42,000,000  lbs.  Missouri,  Ohio  and  other 
western  States  are  rapidly  becoming  large  producers. 

INDIGO  (Indigofera  tinctoria,  Fig.  48). 

Indigo  was  formerly  cultivated  in  the  southerj  States,  to  a 
limited  degree,  but  the  introduction  of 
cotton,  the  great  profits  Avhich  it  yield- 
ed, and  its  consequent  rapid  extension, 
drove  the  culture  almost  entirely  on  ta 
foreign  soils.  The  decline  in  the  price 
of  cotton  from  large  productioh,  the 
increasing  consumption  of  indigo  in 
this  country,  together  with  the  dimia- 
ished  price  of  other  southern  staple.?, 
will  probably  again  make  it  an  object 
of  agricultural  attention  in  those  States 
where  the  soil  and  climate  are  suited 
to  it.  We  have  no  detailed  history  of 
its  cultivation  in  the  United  States, 
f'«-  -i^-  and  I  quote  from  Lo  don. 

He  says,  "  it  is  one  of  tlie  most  profitable  crops  in  Hindostan, 
because  labor  and  land  here  are  cheaper  than  any  where  else ;  • 
and  because  the  raising  of  the  plant  and  its  manufacture 
may  be  carried  on  without  even  the  aid  of  a  house.  The 
first  step  in  the  culture  of  the  plant  is  to  render  the  ground, 
•wliich  should  be  friable  and  rich,  perfectly  free  from  weeds 
and  dry,  if  naturally  moist.  The  seeds  are  then  sown  in 
shallow  dr  Us  about  a  foot  apart.  The  rainy-  season  must 
be  chosen  :'or  sowing,  otherwise  if  the  seed  is  deposited  in 
dry  soil,  it  heats,  corrupts,  and  is  lost.  The  crop  being  kept 
clear  of  weeds  is  fit  for  cutting  in  two  or  three  months,  and 
this  may  be  repeated  in  rainy  seasons  every  six  weeks.  The 
plants  must  not  be  allowed  to  come  into  flower,  as  the  leaves 
in  that  case  become  dry  and  hard  and  the  indigo  produced  is 
10* 


226 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


of  less  val  ie  ;  -or  must  they  be  cut  in  dry  weather,  as  they 
would  not  fpriug  again.  A  crop  generally  lasts  two  years. 
Being  cut,  the  herb  is  first  steeped  in  a  vat  till  it  has  become 
macerated,  and  has  parted  with  its  coloring  matter  ;  then  the 
liquor  is  let  off  into  another,  in  which  it  undergoes  the  pe- 
culiar process  of  beati.ig,  to  cause  the  fecula  to  separate  from 
the  water.  The  fecula  is  let  off  into  a  third  vat,  where  U 
remains  some  time,  and  is  then  strained  through  cloth  bags, 
and  evaporated  in  shallow  wooden  boxes  placed  in  the  shade. 
Before  it  is  perfectly  dry  it  is  cut  in  small  pieces  of  an  inch 
square  ;  and  is  then  packed  in  barrels,  or  sowed  up  in  sacks, 
for  sale." 

Indigo  can  only  be  raised  to  advantage  in  our  most  south- 
ern States.  The  soil  requires  to  be  dry,  finely  pulverized, 
and  rich.  The  seed  is  sown  early  in  April,  in  drills  about 
eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  weeds  are  kept  down  by  the 
hoe.  It  should  be  cut  with  the  sickle  or  scythe,  when  the 
lower  leaves  begin  to  turn,  and  just  before  the  plant  is  going 
into  flower.  This  period  occurs  in  this  country,  about  the 
middle  of  summer.  A  second  crop  may  be  taken  the  first  of 
autumn,  and  in  hotter  climates,  even  a  third. 

The  consumption  of  indigo  in  this  country  already  amounts 
lo  betAveen  two  and  three  millions  of  dollars  annually. 
There  are  several  varieties  indigenous  to  the  southern 
States,  and  one  or  more  in  the  northern,  which  yield  inferior 
dye. 


MADDER  (Rubia  tinctorum.  Fig.  49). 


The  root  of  this 


plant  is  Tised  for  several  dyes,  but  principal- 
ly for  the  rich  madder  red  ;  and  it  has 
been  recently  an  object  of  attention 
in  the  United  States.  The  intro- 
duction of  this,  with  numerous  other 
articles  consequent  upon  the  ex- 
tended growth  of  our  manufactures, 
shows  the  intimate  and  mutually 
beneficial  effects  of  as&r^ciating  the 
two  leading  industrial  occupations 
of  agriculture  and  manufactures. 
The  principal  cause  which  has  pre- 
vented its  cultivation  among  us  thus 
far,  has  been  the  long  time  required 
for  maturing  a  crop.  I  subjoin 
a  description  of  its  culture  from  M'' 
)>a'.eliara. 


HADDER.  227 

Soil  and  preparation. — "  The  soil  should  be  a  deep, 
rich,  sandy  loam,  free  from  weeds,  roots  and  stones.  Al- 
luvial bottom  laiid  is  the  most  suitable,  but  it  must  not  be 
wet.  If  old  upland  is  used,  it  should  receive  a  heavy  coat- 
ing of  vegetable  earth,  from  decayed  wood  and  leaves.  The 
laud  should  be  j)lowed  very  deep  in  the  fall,  and  early  in  the 
spring  apply  about  one  hundred  loads  of  wtll-rotted  manure 
per  acre,  spread  evenl)  azid  plowed  in  deeply,  then  harrow 
till  quite  fine  and  free  from  lumps.  Next,  plow  the  land 
into  beds  four  feet  wide,  leaving  alleys  between  three  feet 
Avide,  then  harrow  the  beds  with  a  fine  light  harrow,  or  rake 
them  by  hand  so  as  to  leave  them  smooth  and  even  with  the 
alleys;  they  are  then  ready  for  planting. 

Preparing  sets  and  plaiiting. — Madder  sets  or  seed 
roots  are  best  selected  when  the  crop  is  dug  in  the  fall.  The 
horizontal  uppermost  roots  with  eyes  are  the  kind  to  be 
used ;  these  should  be  separated  from  the  bottom  roots  and 
buried  in  sand,  in  a  cellar  or  pit.  If  not  done  in  the  fall, 
the  sets  may  be  dug  early  in  the  spring,  before  they  begin  to 
sprout.  They  should  be  cut  or  braken  into  pieces,  contain- 
ing from  two  to  five  eyes  each.  The  time  for  planting  is  as 
early  in  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  got  in  good  order,  and 
severe  frosts  are  over,  which  in  this  climate  is  usually  about 
the  middle  of  April.  With  the  beds  prepared  as  directed, 
stretch  a  line  lengthwise  the  bed,  and  with  the  corner  of  a 
hoe  make  a  drill  two  inches  deep  along  each  edge  and  down 
the  middle,  so  as  to  ^  ^ve  three  rows  to  each  bed,  about  two 
feet  apart.  Into  these  kills  drop  the  sets,  ten  inches  apart, 
covering  them  two  inches  deep.  Eight  or  ten  bushels  of  sets 
are  requisite  for  an  acre. 

After-culture. — As  soon  as  the  plants  can  be  seen,  the 
ground  should  be  carefully  hoed,  so  as  to  destroy  the  weeds 
and  not  injure  the  plants  ;  and  the  hoi  ing  and  weeding 
must  be  repeated  as  often  as  weeds  make  their  appearance. 
If  any  of  the  sets  have  failed  to  grow,  the  vacancies  should 
be  filled  by  taking  up  parts  of  the  strongest  roots  and  trans- 
planting them ;  this  is  best  done  in  June.  As  soon  as  the 
madder  plants  are  ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  the  tops  are 
to  be  bent  down  on  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  all  ex- 
cept the  tip  end,  covered  with  earth  shoveled  from  the 
middle  of  the  alleys.  Bend  the  shoots  outward  and  inward, 
in  every  direction,  so  as  to  fill  all  the  vacant  space  on  the  beds, 
and  about  one  foct  on  each  side.  After  the  first  time  cover- 
).ijg,  repgaf.  the  v  ceding  when  necessary,  and  run  a  single 


228  AMERICAN    AGRIC  ULTtTRE. 

norse  plow  through  the  alleys  several  times  to  keep  Ih  ? 
earth  clean  and  mellow.  As  soon  as  the  plants  again  be 
come  ton  or  twelve  inches  high,  bend  down  and  cover  them 
as  before,  repeating  the  operation  as  often  as  necessary, 
which  is  commonly  three  times  the  first  season.  The  lasf 
time  may  be  as  late  as  September,  or  later  if  no  frosts  occur. 
Bv  covering  the  tops  in  this  manner,  they  change  to  roots, 
and  the  design  is  to  fill  the  gromad  as  full  of  roots  as  possi^ 
ble.  When  the  vacant  spaces  are  all  full,  there  will  be  but 
little  chance  for  weeds  to  grow;  but  all  that  appear  must  be 
pulled  out. 

The  second  year. — Keep  the  beds  free  from  weeds ;  plow 
the  alleys  and  cover  the  tops,  as  before  directed,  two  or 
three  times  during  fhe  season.  The  alleys  will  now  form 
deep  and  narrow  ditches,  and  if  it  becomes  difficult  to  ob- 
tain good  earth  for  covering  the  tops,  that  operation  may  be 
omitted  after  the  second  time  this  season.  Care  should  be 
taken  when  covering  the  tops,  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  beds 
as  high  as  the  middle,  otherwise  the  water  from  heavy 
showers  Avill.  rim  off,  and  the  crop  suffer  from  drought. 

The  third  year. — Very  little  labor  or  attention  is  required. 
The  plants  will  now  cover  the  whole  ground.  If  any  weeds 
are  seen,  they  must  be  pulled  out ;  otherwise  their  roots 
will  cause  trouble  when  harvesting  the  madder.  The  crop 
is  sometimes  dug  the  third  year  ;  and  if  the  soil  and  culti- 
vation have  been  good,  and  the  seasons  warm  and  favorable, 
the  madder  will  be  of  good  quality  ;  bat  generally,  it  is  much 
better  in  quality,  and  more  in  quantity,  when  left  until  the 
fourth  year. 

DiggiJig  and  harvesting. — This  should  be  done  between 
the  20th  of  August  and  the  20th  of  Sei^tember.  Take  g 
sharp  shovel,  and  cut  off  and  remove  the  tops  with  half  an 
inch  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  then  take  a  plow  of  ihe 
largest  size,  with  a  sharp  coulter  and  a  double  team,  and 
plow  a  furrow  outward,  beam-deep,  around  the  edge  of  the 
bed  ;  stir  the  eartii  with  forks,  and  carefully  pick  out  all  the 
roots,  removing  the  earth  from  the  bottom  of  the  furrow ; 
then  plow  another  fiirrow  beam-deep,  as  before,  and  pick 
over  and  remove  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  ;  thus  pro- 
ceeding until  the  whole  is  completed. 

WasJiing  and  drying. — As  soon  as  possible  after  digging, 
take  the  roots  to  some  running  stream  or  pump  to  be  washed. 
Take  large,  round  sieves,  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  in 
diameter,  with  the  wire  about  ns  fine  as  whea".  sieves  '  or. 


MADDER.  229 

if  these  cannot  be  had,  get  screen-wire  of  the  rigLt  f.neness 
and  make  frames  or  boxes  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long, 
and  the  width  of  the  wire,  on  the  bottom  of  which  nail  the 
wire.  In  these  sieves  or  boxes,  put  half  a  bushel  of  roots 
at  a  time,  and  stir  them  about  in  the  water,  pulling  the 
buncnes  apart  so  as  to  Avash  them  clean  ;  then,  having  a 
platform  at  hand,  spread  the  roots  about  two  inches  thick 
for  drying  in  the  sun.  Carry  the  platforms  to  a  convenient 
place,  not  far  from  the  house,  and  place  them  side  by  side, 
in  rows  east  and  west,  and  Avith  their  ends  north  and  south, 
leaving  room  to  walk  between  the  rows.  Elevate  the 
south  ends  of  the  platforms  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the 
north  ends  about  six  inches  from  the  groinid,  putting  poles 
or  sticks  to  support  them — this  will  greatly  facilitate  drying. 
After  the  second  or  third  day  drying,  the  madder  must  be 
protected  from  the  dews  at  night,  and  from  rain,  placing 
the  platforms  one  upon  another  to  a  convenient  height,  and 
covering  the  uppermost  one  wiUi  boards.  Spread  them 
out  again  in  the  morning,  or  as  soon  as  the  danger  is  over. 
Five  or  six  days  of  ordinarily  fine  weather  will  dry  the  mad- 
der sufficiently,  when  it  may  be  put  away  till  it  is  conve- 
nient to  kiln  dry  and  grind  it. 

Kiln  drying. — The  size  and  mode  of  constructing  the 
kiln  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances.  The  following  is 
a  very  cheap  plan,  and  sufficient  to  dry  one  ton  of  roots  at 
a  time.  Place  four  strong  posts  in  the  ground,  twelve  feet 
apart  one  way,  and  eighteen  the  other  ;  the  front  two  four- 
teen feet  high,  and  the  others  eighteen  ;  put  girts  across 
the  bottom,  middle  and  top;  and  nail  boards  perpendiciilarly 
on  the  outside,  as  for  a  comanon  barn.  The  boards  must  be 
well-seasoned,  and  all  cracks  or  holes  should  be  plastered, 
or  otherwise  stopped  up.  Make  a  shed-roof  of  common 
boards.  In  the  inside  put  upright  standards  about  five  feet 
apart,  "vvith  cross-pieces,  to  support  the  scaffislding.  The 
first  cross-pieces  to  be  four  feet  from  the  floor  ;  the  next  two 
feet  higher,  and  so  on  to  the  top.  On  these  cross-pieces, 
lay  small  poles  about  six  feet  long  and  two  inches  thick, 
four  or  five  inches  apart.  On  these  scaffolds  the  madder  is 
to  be  spread  nine  inches  thick.  A  floor  is  laid  at  the  bottom 
to  keep  all  dry  and  clean.  "When  the  kiln  is  filled,  take  six 
or  eight  small  kettles  or  hand  furnaces,  and  place  them  four 
or  five  feet  apart  on  the  floor  (first  securing  it  from  the  fire 
with  bricks  or  stones),  and  make  fires  in  them  with  charcoal, 
*>eing  careful   not  to  make  any  of  the  fires  so    lar^e  as  to 


230 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


ecorc.i  ll.e  madder  over  them.  A  person  mua:  be  in  con- 
^ant  attendance  to  watch  and  replenish  tlie  fires.  The 
heat  wil.  ascend  through  the  whole,  and  in  ten  or  twelve 
hours  it  vill  all  be  sufiiciently  dried,  which  is  known  by  its 
becomins;  brittle  like  pipe-stems.* 

Breaking  and  grinding. — Inmiediately  after  being  dried, 
the  madder  must  be  broken  and  ground  immediately,  or  it 
will  gather  dampness  so  as  to  prevent  its  grinding  freely. 
Any  common  grist-mill  can  grind  madder  properly ;  and 
when  ground  it  is  fit  for  use,  and  may  be  packed  in  l3arrels, 
like  flour,  for  market." 

Quantity  per  acre. — Mr.  Swift,  of  Ohio,  has  raised  2,000 
barrels  per  acre  in  one  crop  of  four  years  growth,  at  a  nett 
profit,  including  all  charges  of  rent,  labor,  &c.,  of  $200  per 
acre.  The  roots  of  madder  are  also  a  good  food  for  cattle, 
but  the  expense  and  delay  of  producing  it,  will  preclude  its 
use  for  that  purpose  in  this  country.  • 

wo  AD  (Isatis  tinctoria,  Fig.  50). 

Woad  is  largely  used  in  this 
country  for  dyeing,  but  generally,  as 
a  base  for  blues,  blacks  and  some  other 
colors,  and  for  these  it  supplies  the 
place  of  indigo.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  woad,  but  the  common 
biennial  plant  is  the  only  one  culti- 
vated. •   Loudon  says: — 

"  The  soil  for  ivoad  should  be 
deep  and  perfectly  fresh,  such  as 
those  of  the  rich,  mellow,  loamy,  and 
deep  vegetable  kind.  Where  this 
culture  is  carried  to  a  considerable 
degree  of  perfection,  the  deep,  rich, 
putrid,  allvivial  soils  on  the  flat  tracts 
fjo.  50.  extending  upon    the  borders  of  the 

large  rivers,  are  chiefly  employed  for  the  growth  of  this  sort 
of  crop  ;  and  it  has  been  shown  by  repeated  trials,  that  it 
answers  most  perfectly  when  they  are  broken  up  for  it  im- 
mediately from  a  state  of  sward. 

*  This  seems  to  be  a  simple  way  of  accomplishing  the  object,  and 
within  every  one's  reach  ;  but  as  carbonic  acid  gas  is  thus  constantly 
generated  and  closely  confined,  and  by  its  gravity  will  occupy  the 
lower  strata  of  air,  the  greatest  caution  will  be  necessary  for  the  per- 
son attending  or  the  kiln  drying,  to  preven'  injury  to  himself 


VVOAD.  231 

The  preparation  of  the  soil,  wlie:.i  woad  is  lo  be  grown 
on  gras>  land,  may  either  be  effected  by  deep  plowings, 
with  the  aid  of  the  winter's  frost,  cross  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing in  spring  ;  by  deep  plo\ving  and  harrowing  in  spring  ; 
by  paring  and  burning  ;  or  by  trenclr-plowing,  or  spade- 
tienching.  The  first  mode  appears  the  worst,  as  it  is  next 
to  impossible  to  reduce  old  turf  in  one  year  ;  and,  even  if  this 
is  done,  the  danger  from  the  grub  and  ^vire-worm  is  a  suffi- 
cient argument  against  it.  By  plo\ving  deep  in  February, 
and  soon  afterwards  sowing,  the  plants  may  germinate  before 
tlie  grub  is  able  to  rise  to  the  surface  ;  by  trench-plowing, 
the  same  purpose  will  be  better  attained  ;  and,  best  of  all, 
by  spade  trenching.  But  a  method  equally  effectual  with 
the  first,  more  expeditious,  and  more  destructive  to  grubs, 
insects,  and  other  vermin,  which  are  apt  to  feed  on  the 
plants  in  their  early  growth,  is  that  of  paring  and  burning 
This  is,  however,  chiefly  practiced  where  the  sward  is  rough 
and  abounds  with  rushes,  sedge,  and  other  plants  of  the 
coarse  kind,  but  it  might  be  had  recourse  to  on  others,  with 
benefit. 

The  mode  of  sowing  is  generally  broad-cast,  but  the 
plant  might  be  most  advantageously  grown  in  rows,  and 
cultivated  with  the  horse  hoe.  The  rows  may  be  nine 
inches  or  a  foot  apart,  and  the  seed  deposited  two  inches 
deep.  The  quantity  of  seed  for  the  broad-cast  method  is 
five  or  six  pounds  to  the  acre ;  for  the  drill  mode,  two 
pounds  are  more  than  sufficient,  the  seed  being  smaller  than 
that  of  the  turnep.  New  seed,  where  it  can  be  procured, 
should  always  be  sown  in  preference  to  old  ;  but,  when  of 
the  latter  kind,  it  should  be  steeped  for  some  time  before  it 
is  put  into  the  ground.— The  time  of  sow^ing  may  be  ex- 
tended from  February  to  July.  Early  sowing,  however,  is 
<o  be  preferred,  as  in  that  case  the  plants  come  up  stronger 
and  afford  more  produce  the  first  season.  The  after-culture 
of  the  woad  consists  in  hoeing,  thinning,  prong-stirring,  and 
weeding,  which  operations  may  be  practiced  by  hand  or 
horse  tools. 

Gathering  the  crops. — The  leaves  of  the  spring-sown 
plants  will  generally  be  ready  towards  the  latter  end  of  June 
or  beginning  of  July,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  sea- 
son and  climate ;  the  leaves  of  those  put  in  at  a  later  period 
in  the  sivmmer  are  often  fit  to  be  gathered  earlier.  This 
busL'iess  should,  however,  constantly  be  executed  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  are  frlly  grown,  while  they  retain  their  perfect 


232  AMERICAN    ;.GR  3ULT1  RE. 

green  color  and  are  highly  succulent ;  as  when  they  are  lei 
remain  till  they  begin  to  turn  pale,  much  of  their  goodnesa 
is  said  to  be  expended,  and  they  become  less  in  quantity,  and 
of  an  inferior  quality  foi  the  purjioses  of  the  dyer.  Where 
the  lands  are  Avell  managed  they  will  often  afford  two  or 
three  gatherings,  but  the  best  cultivators  seldom  take  more 
than  two,  Avhich  are  sometimes  mixed  together  in  the  manu- 
facturing. It  is  necessary  that  the  after-croppings,  when 
they  are  taken,  should  be  constantly  kept  separate  from  the 
others,  as  they  \vould  injure  the  whole  if  blended,  and  con- 
siderably diminish  the  value  of  the  produce.  It  is  said  that 
the  best  method,  where  a  thhd  cropping  is  either  wholly 
or  partially  made,  is  to  keep  it  separate,  forming  it  into  an 
inferior  kind  of  woad.  In  the  execution  of  this  sort  of  busi- 
ness, a  number  of  baskets  are  usually  provided  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  the  crop,  and  into  these  the  leaves  are  thrown 
as  they  are  taken  from  the  plants.  The  leaves  are  detached 
from  the  plants,  by  grasping  them  firmly  Avith  the  hand,  and 
giving  them  a  sort  of  a  sudden  twist.  In  favorable  seasons, 
where  the  soils  are  rich,  the  plants  will  often  rise  to  the 
height  of  eight  or  ten  inches ;  but  in  other  cicumstances, 
they  seldom  attain  more  than  four  or  five. 

The  quantity  produced  is  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half 
of  green  leaves.  The  price  varies  considerably ;  but  for 
woad  of  the  prime  quality,  it  is  often  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  pounds*  the  ton,  and  for  that  of  an  inferior  quality,  six 
or  seven,  and  sometimes  much  more. 

To  prepare  it  for  the  dyer,  it  is  bruised  by  machinery  to 
express  the  watery  part ;  it  is  afterwards  formed  into  balls 
and  fermented,  re-ground,  and  fermented  in  vats,  where  it  is 
evaporated  into  cakes  in  the  manner  of  indigo.  The  haulm 
is  burned  for  manure  or  spread  over  the  straAV-yard,  to  be  fer- 
mented along  with  straw-dung.  To  save  seed,  leave  some 
of  the  plants  undenuded  of  their  leaves  the  second  year,  and 
,when  it  is  ripe,  in  July  or  August,  treat  it  like  turnep  seed. 
The  only  diseases  to  which  the  woad  is  liable,  are  the  mildew 
and  rust.  When  voung,  it  is  often  attacked  by  the  fly,  and 
the  ground  is  obliged  to  be  re-sown,  and  this  more  than  once, 
even  on  winter-plowed  grass-lands." 

WELD  OR  DYER'S  WEED  (Reseda  lateola,  Fig.  61). 

Weld  is   much  used    by  the  manufacturers  of  varioui 
•  The  pound  sterling  n-ay  be  reckoned  at  about  five  dollar* 


WSLD. 


233 


fabrics,  as  a  dye  It  has  not  to  my 
knowledge  been  cultivated  in  this 
country.  I  again  quote  from 
Loudon  :  "  Weld  is  an  imperfect 
biennial,  with  small  fusiform  roots, 
and  a  leafy  stem  from  one  to  three 
feet  in  height.  It  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  flowers  in  June  and  July, 
and  ripens  its  seeds  in  August  an  ^' 
September.  Its  culture  may  bt 
considered  thu  same  as  that  of  woad. 
only  being  a  smaller  plant  it  is  not 
'thinned  out  to  so  great  a  distance. 
It  has  this  advantage  for  the  farmei 
over  all  other  coloring  plants,  that 
it  only  requires  to  be  taken  up  and 
Fio.  51.  dried,  when  it  is  fit  for  the  dyer.     It 

/S  an  exhausting  crop. 

Weld  ivill  grow  on  any  soil,  but  fertile  loams  produce 
the  best  crops.  The  soil  being  brought  to  a  fine  tilth,  the 
seed  IS  sown  ni  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  generally 
broadcast.  °  -^    °  ' 

The  quantity  of  seed  used,  is  from  two  quarts  to  a  gallon 
per  acre  and  u  should  either  be  fresh,  or  if  two  or  three 
years  old  steeped  a  few  days  in  water  previously  to  being 
T^^fi"  =.^  biennial,  and  no  advantage  obtained  from  i^ 

the  first  year,  it  is  sometimes  sown  with  grain  crops  in  the 
manner  of  clover,  which  when  the  soil  is  in  a  very  rich  state, 
may  answer,  provided  that  hoeing,  weeding  and  stirring  take 
p  ace  a^  soon  as  the  grain  crop  is  cut.  The  best  crops  will 
obviously  be  the  result  of  driUin^r  and  cultivatmg  the  crop 
alone.  '"  °  ^ 

Sowing.— T\\Q  drills  mav  be  a  foot  asunder,  and  the  plants 
chinned  to  six  inches  in  the  row.  In  the  broadcast  mode,  it 
is  usual  to  thin  them  to  six  or  eight  inches'  distance  every 
way.  Often,  Avhen  weld  succeeds  grain  crops,  it  is  never 
either  thinned,  weeded,  or  hoed,  but  left  to  itself  till  the 
plants  are  in  full  blossom. 

The  crop  is  taken  by  pulling  itp  the  entire  plant ;  and 
tlie  ])roper  period  for  this  purpose  is  when  the  bloom  has 
been  produced  the  whole  length  of  the  stems,  and  the  plants 
are  just  beginning  lo  turn  of  p.  light  or  yellowish  color;  as 
m  the  beginning  or  middle  of  July  in  tlie  second  year.  The 
plants  are  usually  from  one  focit  to  two  feet  and  a   half  in 


234  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

height.  It  is  thought  by  some,  advantageous  to  pull  it  rather 
early,  \vithout  waiting  for  the  ripening  of  the  seeds ;  as  by 
this  means  there  will  not  only  be  the  greatest  proportion  of 
dye,  but  the  land  will  be  left  at  liberty  for  the  reception  of  a 
crop  of  wheat  or  turneps  ;  in  thi?  case,  a  small  part  must  be 
left  solely  for  the  purpose  of  seed  In  the  execution  of  the 
work,  the  plants  are  drawn  up  by  the  roots  in  smail  hand- 
fuls  ;  and  after  each  handful  had  been  tied  up  with  one  of 
the  stalks,  they  are  set  up  in  fours  in  an  erec*  position,  and 
left  to  dry.  Sometimes,  however,  they  become  sufficiently 
dry  by  turning,  without  being  set  up.  When  dry,  which  is 
effected  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  two,  they  are  bound  up 
into  larger  bundles,  each  containing  sixty  handfuls,  and  weigh- 
ins;  fifty-six  poimds.  Sixty  of  these  bundles  constitute  a 
load,  and  in  places  where  this  kind  of  crop  is  much  grown, 
are  tied  up  by  a  string  made  for  this  purpose. 

The  jJ  rod  lice  of  iceld  depends  much  on  the  nature  of  the 
eeason  ;  and  from  half  a  load  to  a  load  and  a  half  per  acre  is 
the  quantity  most  commonly  afforded.  It  is  usually  sold  to 
the  dyers  at  from  five  or  six  to  ten  or  twelve  pounds  ($25  to 
§60)  the  load,  and  sometimes  at  considerably  more.  It  is 
sometimes  gathered  green  and  treated  like  woad  or  indigo  ; 
but  in  general  the  dried  herb  is  used  by  the  dyers  in  a  state 
of  decoction. 

The  use  of  weld  in  dying  is  for  giving  a  yellow  color  to 
cotton,  woollen,  mohair,  silk  and  linen.  Blue  cloths  are 
dipped  in  a  decoction  of  it,  wliich  renders  them  green  ;  and 
the  yellow  color  of  the  paint  called  Dutch  pink,  is  obtained 
from  weld. 

To  save  seed,  se\ecX.  2i  few  of  the  largest  and  healthiest 
plants,  and  leave  them  to  ripen.  The  seed  is  easily  sepa- 
rated. The  chief  disease  of  weld  is  the  mildew,  to  which  it 
is  very  liable  when  young,  and  this  is  the  reason  that  it  is 
often  sown  with  other  crops." 

STJMACH  (Rhus  glabmm,  R.  coriaria  and  R.  cotiims). 

The  Rhus  glabru77i  is  the  common  sumach  of  the  United 
States  which  grows  spontaneously  on  fertile  soils.  It  is  con- 
siderably used  by  dyers,  and  the  tanners  of  light  leather. 
It  is,  however,  much  inferior  to  the  R.  coriaria  or  Sicilian 
sumach,  which  is  imported  into  this  coimtry  from  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sicily,  Syria  and  elsewhere,  and  sells  at  from  $50 
to  $120  per  tin.  It  is  a  dwarf,  bushy  shrub,  smaller  than 
the  American  but  with  much  larger   leaves.     These  with 


t* 


THE   TEASEL.  235 

the  seed  cones  and  young  stems,  are  al'  ased  by  the  manu- 
facturers. The  R.  cotinus  or  Venice  sumach,  is  th.e  fringe 
tree  or  burning  bush,  a  shrub  for  ornamental  grounds,  bear- 
ing a  flossy,  drab-colored  blossom.  It  is  known  in  England 
as  young  fustic,  and  is  much  used  in  the  arts. 

Cultivation  and  treatment. — All  the  sumachs  are  propa- 
gated by  layers,  though  it  is  probable  they  might,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  be  raised  from  the  seed.  On  good 
soils  they  grow  in  great  profusion.  The  harvesting  consists 
simply  in  cutting  off  the  young  branches  with  the  leaves 
and  seed  cones  attached,  in  clear  weather,  drying  them  thor- 
oughly, without  exposure  to  either  rain  or  dew,  and  packing 
them  in  bales  of  about  160  lbs.,  for  market. 

The  sumach  is  highly  astringent,  often  taking  the  place 
of  galls.  This  quality  is  much  enhanced  by  warmth  of  cli- 
mate ;  and  the  most  valuable  article  is  brought  from  the 
more  southern  regions.  There  is  no  doubt  this  species  of 
plants  might  be  cultivated  with  great  profit  in  the  southern 
States,  and  thus  save  the  large  amount  annually  expended 
in  its  importation,  which  is  constantly  increasing.  The 
total  importation  is  now  estimated  at  between  one  and  two 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum. 

THE   TEASEL  OR  FULLER'S  THISTLE  (Dipsacus  fuIlontiin> 

Is  another  article  exclusively  used  by  the  manufacturers  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  a  nap,  or  combing  out  the  fibres,  upon 
the  dressed  surface  of  woollen  cloth  or  flannels.  The  consump- 
tion cannot  of  course  be  extensive,  being  limited  exclusively 
to  this  demand.  There  is  but  one  kind  cultivated.  A 
bastard  variety  of  spontaneous  growth  exists  in  portions  of 
our  middle  States,  which  resembles  the  useful  teasel,  with 
this  peculiar  difl"erence,  that  the  ends  of  the  awns  or  chaff 
on  the  heads  are  straight,  instead  of  hooked,  which  renders 
them  perfectly  worthless. 

Cultivation. — The  teasel  is  a  biennial,  requiring  two 
years  to  mature.  It  is  sown  on  a  deep,  loamy  clay,  previ- 
ously well  plowed  and  harrowed,  in  drills  20  inches  asunder, 
leaving  a  plant  in  every  10  inches;  or,  if  planted  in  hills, 
they  maybe  about  16  inches  apart.  The  ground  should  be 
kept  light  by  occasional  stirring,  and  free  from  weeds.  The 
plants  are  generally  stronger  and  more  thrifty  if  alloued  to 
mature  where  sown  ;  and  to  accomplish  this,  the  interme- 
•liate  spaces  between  the  hills  may  be  annually  planted 
•v'th  new  seed.     Many  adopt  the  plan  of  sowing  in  beds 


236 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


and  transplanting. — Although  hardy,  there  is  sometimes  an 
advantage  in  covering  the  young  plants  with  straw  during 
the  winter,  v/hich  can  be  conveniently  done  only  when 
they  are  compactly  placed  in  beds. 

Gathering. — Those  intended  for  use  should  be  cut  with 
a  stem  eight  inches  long  below  the  head,  just  as  it  is  going 
out  of  flower  when  the  awns  are  the  toughest ;  and  as  these 
mature  at  diiferent  times  in  the  same  plant,  they  should  be 
cut  successively  as  they  come  forward.  Those  intended  for 
seed,  which  should  always  be  the  largest,  strongest  heads, 
must  be  suffered  to  remain  till  ripe,  when  they  can  be 
gathered  and  threshed  with  a  flail.  Spread  the  others  thinly, 
and  dry  under  cover  where  no  moisture  can  reach  them. 
They  may  then  be  assorted  into  three  parcels,  according  to 
size  and  quality,  and  packed  in  large  sacks,  when  they  are 
ready  for  market.  The  crop  on  good  soils  \vell  cultivated, 
may  be  stated  at  150,000  to  200,000  per  acre,  worth  from 
$1,50  to  $2.00  per  thousand. 

The  use  of  teasels  has  been  to  a  considerable  extent  su- 
perseded in  this  country,  within  a  fe^v  years,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  metallic  nappers.  These  consist  of  thin,  steel 
plates,  with  fine  teeth  arranged  compactly  on  a  shaft, 
forming  a  continuous  cylinder  of  slightly  projecting  teeth, 
which  are  almost  indestructible  by  use. 

MTJSTAHD.. 

There  are  two  speoies  of  mustard  raised  in  the  United 
States ;  tlie  white  [Sinapis 
alba,  Fig.  52),  which  is  most 
usually  cultivated  as  a  forage 
plant ;  and  the  black  (S.  nigra, 
Fig.  53),  generally  raised  foi 
the  seed.  It  require^  a  rich, 
loamy  soil,  deeply  plowed  and 
well  harrowed.  It  may  be 
sown  either  broad-cast,  in 
drills  about  two  feet  apart,  or 
in  hills.  Mr.  Parmelee,  of 
Ohio,  thus  raised  on  27  acres, 
23,850  lbs.,  which  brought  in 
the  Philadelphia  market,  $2,- 
908  ;  an  average  of  over  $100 
per  acre.  The  ground  on  which 
it  is  planted  must  be  frequently 


Fia.  62. 


Fig. 


HOIS, 


237 


stirred  and  kept  clear  of  weeds.  Wher,  matured,  it  should  ba 
careiuDy  cut  with  the  scythe  or  sickle,  and  if  so  ripe  as  to 
shell,  laid  into  a  wairon  box  with  tight  canvas  over  the 
bottom  and  sides,  so  as  to  prevent  waste.  As  soon  as  it  is 
perfectly  dry,  it  may  be  threshed  and  cleaned,  when  it  is 
ready  for  market. 

The  white  mustard  is  a  valuable  crop  as  green  food  for 
cattle  or  sheep,  or  for  plowing  in  as  a  fertilizer.  For  feed- 
ing, the  white  is  much  preferred  to  the  black,  as  the  seed 
of  the  latter  is  so  tenacious  of  life,  as  to  be  eradicated  with 
difficulty  when  once  in  the  ground.  The  amount  of  seed 
required  per  acre  is  from  eight  to  tAventy  quarts,  according 
to  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  land,  and  the  mode  of  planting 
or  sowing.  It  may  be  sown  from  early  spring  till  August, 
for  the  northern  and  middle  States,  and  till  the  latter  part 
of  September  for  the  southern. 

The  crops  yield  from  25  to  30  bushels  per  acre.  Both 
are  excellent  fertilizers  for  the  soil. 

THE  HOP,  (Humulus  lupulus,  Fig.  54). 

There  are   several   varieties   of  hops,  indigenous  to   this 

country.  They  groAV  best 
on  a  strong  loam  or  well- 
drained  clay,  with  light 
sub-soil.  If  the  latter  be 
retentive  of  water,  the  hop 
will  soon  dwindle  or  die. 
If  made  sufficiently  rich, 
it  will  flourish  on  light 
loam  or  gravels  ;  but  a  new, 
strong  soil  is  better,  and 
ilu's  requires  little  or  no 
manure.  The  most  de- 
sirable exposure  is  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  south  :  but 
this  shosld  be  where  there 
can  be  a  free  circulation 
of  air  amidst  fhe  tall  vege- 
table growth,  which  characterizes  the  luxuriant  hop  field  be- 
yond every  other  northern  crop. 

Cultivation. — If  the  land  has  been  long  in  use,  it  should 
be  dressed  with  compost  and  alkaline  manures  ;  or  what  is 
nearly  equivalent,  with  fresh,  barnyard  manures,  on  a  pre- 
viously well-hoed  crop,  made  perfectly  fr-je  of  all  weeds,  and 


Fig.  54, 


AMERICVN    AGRICULTTTB-E. 

deeply  plowed  and  harrowed.  Then  mark  out  :he  groiiud 
at  intervals  of  six  feet  each  way  and  plant  in  the  intersection 
of  the  furrows,  and  unless  the  ground  be  already  rich  enough, 
place  three  or  four  shovels  of  compost  in  each  hill.  The 
planting  is  done  with  the  new  roots  taken  from  the  old  hills, 
which  are  laid  bare  by  the  plow  .  Each  root  should  be  six 
or  eight  inches  long  and  must  contain  two  or  more  eyes,  one 
to  form  the  root,  and  the  other  the  vine.  Six  plants  are  put 
in  a  hill,  all  of  which  should  be  Avithin  the  compass  of  about 
a  foot,  and  covered  to  a  depth  of  five  inches,  leaving  the 
ground  level  when  planted.  The  first  season,  the  interme- 
diate spaces  between  the  hills  may  be  planted  with  corn  or 
potatoes,  and  the  ground  carefully  cleared  of  weeds,  and 
frequently  stirred.  No  poles  are  necessary  the  first  year,  as 
the  product  will  not  repay  the  cost.  The  ground  should  re- 
ceive a  dressing  of  compost  the  following  spring,  and  the 
plants  be  kept  well  hoed  and  clean. 

Poles  may  he  prepared  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  to  each 
hill,  20  to  24  feet  long,  and  selected  from  a  straight,  smooth 
under-growth  of  tough  and  durable  wood,  from  four  to  seven 
inches  diameter  at  the  butt  end.  These  are  sharpened  and 
firmly  set  with  an  iron  bar,  or  socket  bar  with  a  wooden 
handle,  in  such  a  position  as  will  allow  the  fullest  effect  of 
the  sun  upon  the  hills  or  roots.  When  the  plants  have  run 
to  the  length  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the  spring,  train  them 
around  the  poles,  winding  in  the  direction  of  the  sun's 
course,  and  fasten  below  the  second  or  third  set  of  leaves, 
where  there  is  sufficient  strength  of  vine  to  sustain  them- 
selves. They  may  be  confined  with  rushes,  tough  grass,  or 
more  easily  \vith  AvooUen  yarn.  This  operation  is  needed 
again  in  a  few  days,  to  secure  such  as  may  have  got  loose 
by  the  winds  or  oth  '.r  causes,  and  to  train  up  the  new 
shoots. 

T)ie  gathering  of  h  vs  takes  place  when  they  have  ac- 
quired a  strong"  scent,  at  which  time  the  seed  becomes  firm 
and  brown,  and  the  lowest  leaves  begfiu  to  change  color. 
This  precedes  the  frosts  in  September.  The  vines  must  first 
be  cut  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  poles  pulled  up 
and  laid  in  convenient  piles,  when  they  may  be  stripped  of 
the  hops,  which  are  thrown  into  large,  light  baskets.  Or 
the  poles  may  be  laid  on  long,  slender  boxes  with  handles  at 
each  end,  (to  admit  of  being  carried  by  ^wo  persons),  and  as 
the  hops  are  stripped  they  fall  into  the  box.  Be  careful  to 
select  them  free  from  leaves,  stems  and  iirt. 


HOPS  239 

Cultivating  the  second  year. — After  gathering  in  the  fall, 
iii-e  hops  should  be  hilled  or  covered  with  compost  and  all 
tue  vines  removed.  The  following  spring  when  the  ground 
i^-  dry,  the  surface  is  scraped  from  the  hiJ,  and  additional 
compost  is  added,  when  a  plow  is  run  on  four  sides,  as  near 
as  possible  without  injury  to  the  plants.  All  the  running 
roots  are  laid  bare  and  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  within  two  or 
three  inches  of  the  main  root,  and  the  latter  are  trimmed  if 
spreadhig  too  far.  It  is  well  to  break  or  twist  down  the 
first  shoots  and  allow  those  which  succeed  to  run,  as  they 
are  likely  to  be  stronger  and  more  productive.  Cutting 
sliould  be  avoided  unless  in  a  sunny  day,  as  the  profuse 
bleeding  injures  them.  The  poles  will  keep  much  longer,  if 
laid  away  under  cover  till  again  "wanted  the  following  spring. 

Curing  or  drying. — This  is  an  important  operation.  It 
may  be  done  by  spreading  the  hops  thinly  in  the  shade  and 
stirring  them  often  enough  to  prevent  heating.  But  when 
there  is  a  large  quantity,  they  can  be  safely  cured  only  in  a 
iviln.  The  following  mode  is  recommended  by  Mr. 
Blanchard  : 

"  For  the  convenience  of  putting  the  hops  on  the  kiln,  the 
side  of  a  hill  is  generally  chosen.  The  kiln  should  be  dug 
out  the  same  bigness  at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top  ;  the  side 
walls  laid  up  perpendicularly,  and  filled  in  solid  with  stone, 
to  give  it  a  tunnel  form.  Twelve  feet  square  at  the  top, 
two  feet  square  at  the  bottom,  and  at  least  eight  feet  deep, 
is  deemed  a  coiavenient  size.  Sills  are  laid  on  the  top  of  the 
walls,  having  joists  let  into  them  like  a  floor  ;  on  which  laths, 
about  one  and  a  half  inches  ^vide  are  nailed,  leaving  open 
spaces  between  them  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  over  which  a 
thin  linen  cloth  is  spread  and  nailed  at  the  edges  of  the  sills. 
A  board  about  twelve  inches  wide  is  set  up  on  each  side  of 
the  kiln,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  sill,  to  form  a  bin  to  re- 
ceive the  hops.  The  larger  the  stones  made  use  of  in  the 
construction  of  the  kiln,  the  better;  as  it  will  give  a  more 
steady  and  dense  heat.  The  inside  of  the  kiln  should  be 
well  plastered  with  mortar  to  make  it  completely  air-tight. 
Charcoal  made  from  yellow  birch,  sound  hickory  or  maple  is 
the  only  fuel  proper  to  be  used  in  drying  hops.  The  kiln 
should  be  well  heated  before  any  hops  are  put  on,  and  care- 
fully attended,  to  keep  a  steady  and  regular  heat.  Fifty 
pounds  of  hops,  when  dried,  is  the  largest  quantity  that 
should  be  dried  at  one  time,  on  a  kiln  of  this  size,  a:id  unless 
>j<'cessary  to  put  on  that  quantity,  a  less  would  dry  cetter. 


MO  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

The  green  hops  should  be  spread  as  evenly  and  as  light 
as  possible  over  the  kiln.  The  fire  at  first  should  be  mode- 
rate, but  it  may  be  increased  as  the  hops  dry  and  the  steam 
is  evaporated. 

The  hops,  after  lying  a  few  days,  will  gather  a  partial 
moisture,  called  a  sweat.  The  sweat  will  probably  begin  to 
SHbside  in  about  eight  days,  at  which  time,  and  before  the 
sweat  is  off,  they  ought  to  be  bagged  in  clear  dry  weather.  As 
the  exact  time  when  the  hops  will  begin  to  sweat,  and  when 
the  sweat  will  begin  to  subside  or  dry  off"  (the  proper  time 
to  bag  them),  will  vary  with  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  the  hops  from  day  to  day, 
which  is  easily  done  by  taking  some  of  them  from  the  centre 
of  the  heap.  If  on  examination  you  find  the  hops  to  be 
very  damp,  and  their  color  altering,  which  Avill  be  the  case 
if  they  were  not  completely  dried  on  the  kiln,  overhaul  and 
dry  them  in  the  air. 

Hops  should  not  remain  long  in  the  bin  or  bag  after  they 
are  picked,  as  they  Avill  very  soon  heat  and  become  insipid. 
The  hops  should  not  be  stirred  on  the  kiln  until  they  are 
completely  and  fully  dried.  Then  remove  them  from  the 
xiln  into  a  dry  room  and  lay  in  a  heap  unstirred  until  bag- 
ged. This  in  done  ^vith  a  screw,  having  a  box  made  of 
plank  the  size  of  the  bag  into  ^vhich  the  cloth  is  laid  and 
the  hops  screwed  into  the  box,  so  constructed  that  the  sides 
may  be  removed  and  the  bag  sewed  together  while  in  the 
press.  The  most  convenient  size  for  a  bag  is  about  five  feet 
in  length,  and  to  contain  ajpout  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
The  best  material  is  coarse,  strong,  domestic  tow  cloth  ;  next 
to  that,  Russia  hemp  bagging. 

Those  who  have  entered  considerably  into  the  cultivation 
of  hops,  build  houses  over  their  kihis,  which  are  convenient 
in  wet  weather,  otherwise,  a  kiln  in  the  open  air  would  be 
preferable.  It  is  necessary  to  have  these  buildings  well  ven- 
tilated with  doors  and  windows ;  and  to  have  them  kept 
open  night  and  day,  except  in  wet  weather,  and  then  shut 
those  only  which  are  necessary  to  keep  out  the  rain.  Or  if 
a  ventilator  was  put  in  the  roof  it  -would  be  found  advan- 
tageous. I  have  seen  many  hops  injured  bo-th  in  color  and 
flavor  by  being  dried  in  close  buildings.  Where  the  houses 
over  the  kilns  are  large  for  the  purpose  of  storing  the  hops, 
make  a  close  partition  between  the  kilns  and  the  room  in 


CASTOR    BEAN. 


241 


which  the  hops  are  stored,  to  prevent  the  damp  steam  from  the 
kilns  as  it  will  color  them,  and  injure  the  flavor  and  quality." 
Diseases. — Hops  are  liable  to  attack  from  variovis  insects, 
blight,  mildew,  &;c.  There  is  no  effective  remedy  of  general 
application  for  either.  The  best  preventives  are  new  or 
fresh  soil,  which  is  rich  in  ashes  and  the  inorganic  manures, 
and  in  a  fine  tillable  condition  to  insure  a  rapid  growth,  by 
which  the  hops  may  partially  defy  attack  ;  and  open  plant- 
ing, on  such  positions  as  will  secure  free  circulation  of  air. 
When  properly  managed,  hops  are  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive crops  ;  but  their  very  limited  use  will  always  make  them 
a  minor  object  of  cultivation. 

THE  CASTOR  BEAN,  (Ricinus  communis,  usually  called  Falma 

Christi,  Fig.  55), 

Is  a  native  of  the  West  India  islands,  where   it  grows 

with  great  luxuri- 
ance. It  is  culti- 
vated as  a  field 
crop  in  our  mid- 
dle States,  and  in 
those  bordering 
the  Ohio  River  on 
the  North.  It 
likes  a  rich,  mel- 
low bed,  and  is 
planted  and  hoed 
like  corn.  It  at- 
tains the  height  of 
Fig.  65.  five  or  six  feet,  and 

bears  at  the  rate  of  20  to  28  bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  is 
separated  from  the  pods,  bruised  and  subjected  to  a  great 
pressure,  by  which  it  yields  nearly  a  gallon  to  the  bushel, 
of  cold-pressed  castor  oil,  which  is  very  much  superior  to  that 
extracted  by  boiling  and  skimming.  The  last  is  done,  either 
with  or  Avithout,  first  slightly  roasting.  This  oil  forms  not 
only  a  mild  cathartic,  but  with  some  is  an  article  of  food. 
Its  separation  or  conversion  into  a  limpid  oil  for  machinery 
and  lamps,  and  into  stearine  for  candles,  has  lately  much  in- 
creased its  valuable  uses. 

ARROW  ROOT  (Maranta  arundinaoea.  Fig.  56). 

This  plant  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  South  Ameri- 
11 


242 


AMERICAM    AGRIC'JL .  UEK. 


ca,     the    West     India 
Islands  and  in  1'  Idiida. 
It    requires    a     lights 
loamy,  fertile  soil   of 
good  depth.     It  is  pro- 
pagatecl    by    dividing 
;the  roots  and  planting 
'in    drill?,     12     to    18 
inches     apart.       The 
ground    requires    stir- 
ring occasionally,  and 
to    be    kept    clear   of 
weeds.     When  a  yeai 
old,  the  roots  are  taken 
up,  well  washed,  then 
reduced  to  a  pulp  by 
bruising  or  grinding. 
The  pulp  is  then  pass* 
ed    throv;gh    a  sieve, 
and    after  the    fecula 
or  starch  has  settled, 
FJg'5*-  the   water  is  poured 

pflF.  The  sediment  is  again  washed  in  pure  water,  then 
dried,  in  which  condition  it  forms  the  arrow  root  of  com- 
merce. This  constitutes  a  light  digestible  food  for  invalids, 
but  affords  little  nourishment.  It  is  essentially  the  same  as 
potato  flour  and  tapioca,  o;-  the  product  of  Manchot  or  sweet 
cassava. 

G-INSING-  (Panax  quinquefoliam,  Fig  57). 

This  plant  is  indigenous  to  the  northern,  middle  and 
western  States,  where  it  grows 
spomaueously  on  the  hill-sides 
when  shaded  by  the  forest  trees. 
It  yields  jmmerous  fleshy  roots,  of  a 
yellowish  color,  from  one  to  three 
inches  long,  which  are  dug,  washed 
and  dried,  when  th^y  are  ready  for 
."iiarket.  It  has  a  sweetish  and 
slightly  aromatic  taste,  and  con- 
tains considerable  proportions  ol 
gum  and  starch.  It  possesses  little 
merit  as  a  medicine,  though  highly 
esteemed  for  its  imaginary  virtues 
by    the    Chinese.     The    shipments 


TEA    lLANT. 


243 


from  this  country  for  China  have  sometimes  reached  nearly 
half  a  million  of  dollars  for  a  single  year.  It  has  not  been 
cultivated  to  any  extent  in  this  country. 

THE  TEA  PLANT  (Thea  bohea  and  T.  viridis,  Fig.  58). 

This  planthas  been  introduced  to  some  extent,  into  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  within  the 
last  few  years,  x.  grows  extensively 
in  China,  between  the  latitudes  27° 
and  32°  ;  and  in  the  Island  of  Japan, 
it  flourishes  as  far  north  as  45°. 

It  is  propagated  by  planting  two 

or  three  seeds  together,  at  a  distance 

of  four  or  five  feet  apart  each  way,  in 

the  bed  where  they  are  to  grow,  in  a 

dry,  silicious  soil,  of  moderate  fertility, 

and  general!}^    on    the    hill-sides.     In 

the  northern  provinces  of  China,  the  tea 

plant  occupies  a  rich,  sandy  loam.     It 

requires  little  attention,  except  to  be 

^ '°-  ^^-  kept    clear    of    weeds.     The    leaves 

are  plucked  when  the  planthas  attained  a  three  years  growth, 

and  when  dried,  constitute  the  tea  of  commerce. 

The  leaves  are  picked  three  times  in  a  season.  The  first, 
and  but  partially  expanded  leaflets,  yield  the  best  quality  of 
tea,  known  in  Europe  and  America  as  the  Imperial.  The 
next  picking  gives  an  inferior  quality  ;  and  the  third  yields  the 
lowest  in  value.  These  are  again  subdivided,  into  an  almost 
endless  variety  of  sorts  or  chojys. 

The  leaves  are  cured  by  heating  them  under  cover,  on  iron 
pans,  from  which  they  are  taken  while  hot  and  carefully 
rolled  by  hand.  This  operation  is  performed  tAvo  or  three 
times,  and  all  the  moisture  thoroughly  expelled,  when  it  is 
assorted  into  various  qualities  and  put  up  for  sale  or  use. 

The  tea  plant  becomes  unthrifty  and  stunted  under  the 
close  harvesting  of  the  leaves  ;  and  at  the  age  of  six  to  ten 
years,  requires  to  be  partially  cut  down,  to  secure  a  fresh 
growth  of  thrifty  shoots.  The  immense  and  increasino"  con- 
sumption of  this  article  will  justify  the  fullest  exppriments 
at  the  South,  with  the  view  of  adding  this  to  our  exces.-ively 
limited  list  of  soutliern  staples.  An  extensive  effort  is  at 
this  moment  made  in  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  by  a  gentle- 
man from  New  York,  for  the  establishment  of  tea  planta 
tions  in  each  of  those  States.     I  saw  several  thousand  choice 


^44  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

plants  juSt  imported  from  Europe,  on  their  way  to  those 
States,  and  which,  I  learn,  have  been  subsequently  trans- 
planted and  are  growing  finely. 

The  plant  has  been  cultivated  in  Brazil,  France  and 
Algiers,  for  many  years,  but  it  has  succeeded  only  in  the 
former  country,  to  much  extent.  The  soil  of  Algiers  has 
been  found  too  dry  and  the  climate  too  hot ;  while  in  France, 
little  attention  has  thus  far  been  devoted  to  it. 

SILK. 

This  valuable  product  has  been  more  or  less  an  object  of 
attention  in  this  country,  since  its  early  settlement.  It  was 
raised  on  a  limited  scale  in  the  then  southern  Provinces, 
lonf  before  their  separation  from  Great  Britain  ;  and  for 
more  than  a  century,  good  sewing  silks  hav;^  been  made,  to 
a  small  amount,  in  various  places  in  New  England.  Occa- 
sionally, strong,  domestic  silk  fabrics  have  been  manufac- 
tured, which  had  the  merits  of  comfort  and  almost  perpe- 
tual durability,  but  with  little  pretension  to  style  or  conven- 
tional taste. 

The  enormous  importations  of  silk  into  this  country,  in 
1836,  exceeding  $20,000,000,  awakened  the  attention  of 
our  countrymen  to  the  great  value  of  this  material  ;  and  a 
speculation  in  the  morus  multicaulis  mulberry,  at  that  time 
thouo-ht  to  be  the  best  species  for  the  silk  worm,  was  the 
result,  w^hich,  for  a  time,  almost  rivalled  the  tulip  mania  of 
Holland.  The  general  effect,  however,  was  beneficial.  It 
scattered  the  material  for  the  support  of  the  silk  worm 
throughout  the  country,  and  induced  an  attention  to  the 
rearing  of  this  useful  but  humble  servant  of  the  pride  and 
luxury  of  mankind,  that  might  not  have  been  realized  to 
the  same  extent  for  many  years  subsequent.-  There  is  a 
large  and  increasing  attention  to  this  subject,  but  I  regret 
to  add,  the  production  of  our  raw  material  is  far  below  the 
demand  in  this  countiy,  while  the  manufactured  article  is 
largely  imported. 

My  limits  will  not  admit  of  minute  directions  for  the 
management  of  a  cocoonery,  nor  is  this  essential  to  a  suc- 
cessful result.  Moderate  intelligence  and  skill,  with  close 
attention,  will  enable  almost  any  one  to  produce  the  raw 
silk  to  a  profit. 

Varieties  of  the  Mulberry  for  feediyig. — The  kinds  of 
trees  best  suited  to  the  health  of  the  worm,  and  the  weight 
and  value  of  its  product,  are  the  Alpine  and  Canton      The 


SILK.  245 

foliage  of  these  is  more  solid  and  nutritious  than  the  raulti- 
caulis,  and  on  rich  or  wet  ground,  they  are  far  preferable  to 
any  other.  The  multicavxlis,  though  very  succulent  and 
watery  in  moist  land,  and  therefore  liable  to  induce  disease 
in  the  worms,  is  still  a  prolific  and  healthful  food  for  them 
Avhere  grown  on  dry  or  upland  soils.  Many  others  of  the 
mulberry  family  are  more  or  less  suited  to  the  object ;  and 
even  some  of  the  indigenous,  uncultivated  varieties  of  this 
country,  have  been  found  to  answer  a  very  good  purpose  for 
'ceding,  where  other  sources  of  supply  had  failed. 

Manner  of  planting  the  Mulberry. — The  usual  system 
noAV  adopted,  is  not  to  raise  the  trees  in  orchards  to  theii 
full  size  as  formerly  practiced,  but  to  sow  or  plant  tJiickly, 
in  drills  or  hills,  and  cut  the  sprouts  and  young  branches  as 
they  shoot  out.  This  gives  an  immediate  return  for  the 
planting ;  and  it  enables  the  person  engaged  in  this  enterprise, 
to  commence  his  operations,  without  the  long  delay  conse- 
quent upon  the  remote  maturity  of  the  trees. 

Variety  of  ivorms. — The  peamit  is  usually  esteemed  the 
best  variety,  being  more  hardy  and  productive,  and  yielding 
generally  a  finer  quality  of  silk.  There  are  several 
others,  as  the  white,  the  sulphur,  &c.,  which  possess  much 
merit. 

Reari?ig  and  mayiagement. — The  eggs  must  be  kept  in 
a  cool,  dry  place,  till  ready  to  be  hatched,  the  temperature 
not  exceeding  about  50^  Far.  When  the  mulberry  leaves 
begin  to  make  their  appearance  in  the  spring,  the  eggs  may 
be  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  about  65°,  then  gradually 
raised  to  75°.  At  this  last  degree  of  heat,  from  seven  to  ten 
days  will  be  sufficient  to  hatch  the  eggs. 

Immediately  commence  feeding  with  fresh,  but  not  wet 
leaves  ;  and  supply  them  as  wanted,  till  the  worm  has  at- 
tained maturity  and  is  ready  to  wind  the  cocoon.  During 
the  period  of  moulting,  Avhich  occurs  four  times  in  the  life 
of  the  worm,  their  customary  food  should  be  withheld  from 
them.  Some  wilt  the  leaves  partially  before  feeding,  which 
is  well  enough  as  a  preventive  to  an  excess  of  water  in 
their  food. 

The  temperature  of  the  room  occupied  by  the  Avorms, 
should  be  kept  at  about  75°.  A  slight  variation  from  this 
is  not  objectionable  ;  but  where  it  varies  materially,  artifi- 
cial means  must  be  resorted  to  for  maintaining  a  nearly  \\n\- 
form  temperature.  Cleanliness  in  feeding  and  removing 
the    excrements  and  deaJt   wo  ms  i'-  '.mportaut ;  aud  there 


246 


AMERICAN   AGRICC-  TURE. 


ehould  be  a  frje  circulation  of  air,  without  exposing  them  to 
moisture  and  the  depredations  .of  birds,  rats,  or  mice.  Chlo- 
ride of  lime  is  an  excellent  purifier  for  \he  cocoonery. 

When  ready  to  spin,  which  may  be  known  by  their  ceas- 
ing to  eat,  raising  their  lieads,  and  clambering  about  their 
feeding  boards,  the  Avorms  may  be  supplied  with  poplar  or 
other  branches  ;  or  wisps  «f  straw  tied  at  the  upper  end,  and 
spread  at  the  bottom,  for  the  worm  to  crawl  upon  and  at- 
tach his  cocoon.  The  straw  may  be  secured  by  bracing  it 
between  two  shelves. 

Breeding. — After  remaining  about  eight  days,  a  sufficient 
number  of  the  best  cocoons  should  be  first  selected  for 
breeding.  These  must  be  nearly  equal  in  the  quantities  of 
male  and  female  worms,  the  first  being  generally  indicated 
by  a  pointed  end,  and  somewhat  drawn  in  at  the  middle  ; 
while  the  latter  is  nearly  alike  at  either  end.  In  about 
fourteen  days  the  millers  come  forth  and  couple.  After  a 
connection  of  twelve  hours,  throw  away  the  males,  unless 
there  is  a  deficiency,  when  they  may  be  retained  for  further 
use  ;  but  the  progeny  is  not  generally  so  strong  as  wlien  the 
male  is  used  but  once.  Soon  after,  the  female  voids  a 
brownish  matter,  when  she  is  placed  on  a  clean  paper  or 
muslin,  and  put  away  in  a  dark  place,  where  she  lays  her 
eggs  and  dies. 

From  100  to  120  pairs  of  millers  will  produce  an  ounce 
of  eggs.  Each  female  lays  from  300  to  500  Qggs^,  averaging 
about  350.  An  ounce  of  eggs  contains  about  40,000.  If 
well  saved  from  good  millers,  and  safely  kept,  they  will 
nearly  all  hatch  and  produce  good  worms.  Our  climate  is 
admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  the  silk-worm,  as  is 

shown  by  the  fact, 
that  while  an  average 
of  30  to  60  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  worms 
are  lost  in  Europe, 
from  climate,  food, 
and  irremediable  dis- 
ease, scarcely  five  per 
cent,  are  lost  in  this 
country,  under  care- 
ful management,  from 

Piedmontese  Reel.     Fig.  53.  the  same   Causes. 

Reeling. — The  cocoons  may  be  reeled  immediately  after 
they  are  formed,  if  ©jnvenieut.     If  to  be  kept  foi  any  time, 


SILK    REELS. 


247 


the  chrysalis  must  be  stifled,  which  is  done  by  exposure  to 
a  hot  sun  for  two  or  three  days,  or  baking  in  an  oven  at  a 
temperature  of  about  200°. 

sin 


Fig.  61. 

Fig.  59  is  tlie  most  approved  Piedmontese  reel.  Fig.  60 
and  61  is  a  lately  adopted  French  reel,  represented  in  twt 
views.  A  simple  reel  may,  however,  be  made  by  any  me- 
chanic, that  will  an^ver  tlfe  purpose  for  making  domestic  silk, 
but  not  if  designed  for  sale.  The  reeling  for  market  is  a  very 
nice  operation,  and  requires  a  good  reel  and  an  experienced 
reeler,  though  both  are  easily  procured  with  a  little  atten- 
tion. When  ready  for  reeling,  place  the  cocoons  in  clear, 
soft  water,  raised  nearly  to  the  boiling  point,  then  gently 
press  them  under  with  a  light  brush  of  broom-corn,  and  the 
fibres  of  the  silk  will  adhere.  After  taking  off  the  outer  co- 
vering or  tow,  the  silk  is  run  rapidly  on  the  reel,  wath  enough 
threads  to  make  the  fibre  of  the  required  size.  Keep  the 
Avater  pure  by  skimming,  and  changing  as  often  as  necessa- 
ry. The  silk  is  then  allowec.  to  dry  immediately,  when  it 
may  be  packet":  for  market. 


248  AMERICAN   AGRICULTUllB. 


CHAPTER   XI, 


FRUITS. 

The  production  of  a  variety  of  fruits,  to  the  extent  at  least 
of  his  own  wants,  ought  to  occupy  th*.-  attention  of  every 
farmer.  The  soil  and  climate  of  the  United  States,  are  al- 
most everywhere  suited  to  their  cheap  and  easy  propaga- 
tion. They  are  a  source  of  profit  for  the  marliet,  they  are 
useful  for  stock,  and  they  afford  some  of  the  choicest  and 
most  economical  luxuries  for  domestic  use.  Success  in  their 
cultivation  may  at  all  tunes  be  secured,  by  a  judicious  selec- 
tion of  trees,  soil  and  location,  and  by  an  intelligent  and  pro- 
per attention  thereafter. 

THE  APPLE. 

The  locality  for  the  apple  orchard  must  depend  entirely 
on  the  climate  and  soil.  In  warm  latitudes,  a  northerly  ex- 
posure is  best  when  not  subject  to  violent  ^vinds,  as  these 
from  any  quarter,  are  liable  to  blast  the  fruit  while  in  blos- 
som, and  blow  it  from  the  tree  before  it  is  ripe.  It  is  im- 
portant to  protect  an  orchard  from  the  bleak  winds  which 
prevail  in  its  immediate  neighborhood,  by  n  judicious  selec- 
tion of  the  ground.  A  warm  and  sunny  exposure  subjects 
the  buds  in  spring  to  premature  swelling,  and  these  are  often 
cut  off  by  the  severe  spring  frosts  that  follow ;  when  a  colder 
position  would  retard  their  budding  until  the  season  was 
sufiiciently  advanced  for  their  protection. 

Soil. — All  the  varieties  of  soil  between  a  stiff,  unyielding 
clay  and  a  light,  shifting  sand,  are  friendly  to  the  apple. 
The  soil  best  suited  to  the  perfection  of  fruit  is  a  moist,  fria- 
ble, calcareous  loam,  slightly  intermixed  with  fine  gravel. 
This  may  run  either  into  a  sandy  loam,  which  usually  rests 
upon  a  sub-soil  of  sand  or  gravel,  or  into  a  clayey  loam 
with  a  sub-soil  of  stiff  clay.  Either  of  these  is  a  good  soil 
for  the  orchard.  The  ground  should  be  rich  enough  for  the 
production  of  good  :;rops  of  grain,  roots  or  grass.  This  degre* 
11* 


FRUITS.  249 

cf  fertility  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  thrifty  growth  of 
the  tree,  and  its  existence  in  a  healthy  and  vigcfois  state. 
Springy  or  wet  laud  is  decidedly  objectionable,  and  if  the 
farmer  can  appropriate  no  other  for  this  purpose,  it  should  be 
well  drained,  either  by  under-ground  ditches  or  open 
trenches,  sufficiently  deep  to  carry  off  the  water  for  a  depth 
at  least  of  two  feet  below  the  surface,  so  as  to  leave  the  soil 
which  is  perforated  by  the  roots,  in  a  warm  and  active  state. 
Rocky  and  stony  soils  of  the  above  descriptions,  are  usually 
well  suited  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees.  The  stones  keep 
the  ground  moist,  loose  and  light.  Some  of  the  finest  fruits 
grow  where  there  is  scarcely  room  to  place  the  roots  of  the 
tree  between  the  rocks.  But  a  sufficient  area  of  earth  is  ne- 
cessary for  an  ample  growth  of  wood,  and  the  full  size  of  the 
tree  at  maturity. 

Stiff  clays  and  light  blowing  sands,  under  very  nice  culti- 
vation, will  grow  fruits ;  but  they  require  active  manures. 
Clays  should  be  often  plowed,  particularly  in  the  fall,  that 
the  soil  may  be  ameliorated  by  the  winter  frosts.  The  sands 
require  compact  culture  and  appropriate  manures.  All  such 
as  are  suited  to  ordinary  crops  on  these  lands,  will  promote 
the  growth  of  trees.  But  it  is  preferable  to  appropriate  soils 
more  suitble  for  the  orchard,  as  the  fruit  will  be  larger,  fairer 
and  better  flavored,  and  the  trees  of  much  longer  duration. 

Planting. — The  soil  shoulU  be  prepared  by  deep  plowing, 
before  planting  the  trees.  The  sub-soil  plow  will  accom- 
plish this  more  effectually  than  can  otherwise  be  done. 
Then  dig  the  holes  from  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter  and 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  according  to  the  kind  of  soil 
and  the  size  of  the  tree.  The  more  compact  the  soil  the 
deeper  and  larger  should  be  the  hole.  When  ready  to  plant, 
let  enough  of  the  best  or  top  soil  be  thrown  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole,  so  that  the  tree  may  stand  about  one  inch 
lower  than  when  removed  from  the  nursery.  Take  vip  the 
tree  so  as  to  injure  the  roots  as  little  as  possible.  If  any  be 
broken  cut  them  off,  either  square  or  obliquely,  with  a  fine 
saw  or  sharp  knife.  When  left  in  a  bruised  or  broken  con- 
ditition  they  will  canker  and  decay  in  the  ground  ;  but  if 
thus  cut  off,  numerous  rootlets  will  spring  out  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  amputated  root,  which  strike  into  the  soft 
earth  and  give  increased  support  to  the  tree.  Should  the 
soil  be  poor,  the  roots  must  be  covered  and  the  holes  filled 
with  good  earth.  If  the  hole  be  small,  the  surrounding  land 
hard,  and  the  roo  .s  bent  up  and  cramped,  the  tree  cannot 
11* 


2o0  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

grow  ;  tut  if  it  finally  survives  after  a  long  time  of  doubt  and 
delay,  it  creeps  along  with  a  snail's  pace,  making  little  re- 
turn to  the  owner.  When  the  tree  is  crooked,  confine  it 
with  a  strau'  band  to  a  stake  firmly  planted  in  the  ground. 
This  is  the  best  ligature,  as  it  does  not  cut  the  bark,  which 
small  cords  often  do,  and  it  gradually  gives  waj"  as  the  tree 
increases  in  size.  When  thus  planted,  Avell  manured  and 
well  looked  after,  the  tree  thrives,  and  in  a  few  years,  re- 
wards the  owner  with  its  delicious  and  abundant  fruit. 

The  season  of  pla}iting  may  be  any  time  after  the  fall  of 
the  leaf  in  autumn,  till  its  re-appearance  in  the  spring,  pro- 
vided the  ground  be  not  frozen.  Early  spring  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  planting  stone  fruits.  They  may  be  removed 
while  in  embryo  leaf  and  blossom  with  entire  success,  but  it 
is  better  to  do  this  before  the  bud  is  much  swollen.  If  one 
time  be  equally  convenient  Avith  another,  fall  planting  is  to 
be  preferred  for  fruit  generally,  as  the  earth  then  becomes 
settled  about  the  roots  early  in  the  following  season.  This 
is  particularly  advantageous  when  the  spring  is  succeeded 
by  a  severe  summer's  drought.  The  transplanting  of  trees 
is  an  operation  of  the  greatest  importance  to  their  success 
More  fruit  may  be  reasonably  anticipated  for  the  first  ten 
years,  if  not  forever,  from  one  tree  Avell  planted,  than  from 
three  indifferently  done. 

It  sometimes  occurs  in  removing  trees  from  a  distance, 
that  they  arrive  at  their  destination  after  the  ground  is 
frozen.  In  such  cases,  a  trench  should  be  dug  in  soft  earth 
and  the  trees  laid  in  it,  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  three  or 
four  inches  apart,  the  roots,  carefully  placed  to  prevent 
breaking,  and  the  earth  piled  on  them  for  a  foot  up  the  trunk, 
and  eight  or  ten  inches  over  the  roots.  This  will  preserve 
them  until  spring  without  detriment  to  their  future  growth, 
and  it  is  often  done  by  nurserymen  and  others,  who  re- 
move their  trees  from  one  location  to  another  without  loss 
Apple  trees  should  never  be  planted  in  the  orchard  at  a  less 
distance  than  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  ;  the  distance  to  de- 
pend on  the  fertiiitj-  of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  tree,  some 
growing  much  larger  and  throwing  out  their  tranches  more 
laterally  than  others.  If  too  near,  the  trees  do  not  receive 
the  requisite  quantity  of  sun  and  a  free  circulation  of  air, 
both  of  which  are  essential  to  the  size,  flavor  and  perfection 
of  fruit. 

Cultivation. — A  pre  ;iousI  y  uncultivated  or  virgin  soil  is 
!he  best  for  an  orcharfl ;    but  if  such  is  not  available,  thep 


FRUITS.  251 

Buch  as  has  beei.  long  in  pasture  or  meadow  is  jnost  suitable. 
The  most  efficient  manures  are  swamp  muck,  decayed 
leaves  and  vegetables,  rotten  wood,  chip  manure,  lime, 
ashes,  gypsum  and  charcoal.  Trees  draAV  their  food  mostly 
(rom  the  soil,  and  to  supply  the  elements  of  their  growth  in 
abundance,  the  earth  must  occasionally  be  renewed  with 
those  materials  which  may  have  become  partially  or  wliolly 
exhausted.  When  carefully  plowed  and  cultivated  in  hoed 
crops,  orchards  thrive  most  rapidly,  if  care  be  taken  to  pro* 
tect  the  trees  from  damage  either  to  the  trunks  or  roots. 
All  tearing  of  the  roots  is  objectionable.  The  ground  should 
be  kept  rich  and  open,  so  as  to  be  pervious  to  the  rains,  the 
sun,  and  the  atmosphere.  Under  these  conditions  the  trees 
will  thrive  vigorously. 

When  lands  are  in  meadow,  a  space  of  three  to  six  feet 
in  diameter  around  the  trunk,  according  to  the  age  and  size 
of  the  tree,  ought  always  to  be  kept  free  from  turf.  Pastures 
are  so  bared  by  the  tread  of  animals,  and  the  closeness  of 
their  cropping,  that  the  roots  of  the  trees  get  their  share  of 
benefit  from  the  sun  and  rains.  From  this  cause,  pastures 
are  better  suited  to  orchards  than  mowing  lands ;  for  the 
latter  are  so  completely  covered  by  the  rank  growth  of 
grass,  that  the  tree  suffers,  and  without  the  aid  of  manures, 
and  the  annual  loosening  of  the  ground  for  afev/  feet  around, 
the  tree  in  some  cases  dies  from  exhaustion.  All  kinds  of 
cereal  grains  are  bad  for  orchards,  except,  perhaps,  buck- 
wheat. The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  this  crop,  by 
early  summer  plowing,  is  highly  conducive  to  the  growth 
of  trees;  and  its  nutriment  being  drawn  largely  from  the  air, 
it  rol)S  the  roots  of  a  small  amount  only  of  the  materials  in 
the  soil. 

A  neighboring  farmer,  whose  management  many  years 
since  came  under  my  notice,  had  a  small  mowing  lot  ad- 
joining his  barn  and  cattle  sheds,  which  was  surrounded 
With  a  stone  wall.  The  soil  was  a  moist,  gravelly  loam, 
every  way  fitted  for  the  growth  of  the  apple,  as  was  shown 
by  there  having  been  several  flourishing  orchards  on  similar 
soils  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  He  filled  this  with  apple 
trees  set  in  small  holes  at  the  proper  distances,  the  rows 
terminating  close  to  the  wall  on  each  side,  and  also  near  his 
barn  and  sheds.  Afte*  setting  ou;,  the  trees  were  staked, 
and  then  left  to  grow  as  best  they  could  without  further 
cultivation.  Those  remote  from  the  wall  and  buildings  re- 
mained stationary  for  aever^'  years,  while  those  under  their 


252  AMERICAN    AGRIC  ;  LTURE. 

influence,  after  two  or  three  years,  liegan  to  show  a  'vigorous 
growth.  The  grass  was  ren  oved  annually,  and  the  trees 
received  no  cultivation,  save  perhaps  a  bushel  or  two  of 
chip  manure  occasionally  thrown  around  them.  Twe:ity 
years  after  they  were  planted,  the  trees  next  to  the  wall  and 
buildings  were  thrifty  and  had  attained  a  large  size,  while 
many  of  the  others  had  died,  a  few  had  grown  to  one  fourth 
the  size  of  the  outer  ones,  and  others  were  still  smaller, 
mossy,  and  showing  signs  of  a  premature  old  age.  Not  one 
third  of  the  trees  gave  any  return  of  fruit.  The  wall  and 
buildings  kept  the  soil  next  them  light  and  moist,  while  that 
in  the  more  open  field  spent  all  its  energy  upon  the  grass.  To 
make  an  orchard  profitable,  the  soil  must  be  properly  culti- 
vated, till  the  trees  have  attained  a  considerable  growth, 
and  show  so  much  vigor  and  thrift,  that  their  expanded 
roots  may  be  safely  left  to  provide  their  own  nutriment. 

Priming. — This  operation  must  commence  at  the  plant- 
ing of  the  tree,  the  top  of  which  should  always  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  and  number  of  the  roots.  If  the  top  be 
high  and  spindling,  shorten  it  so  as  to  throw  the  lateral 
shoots  into  a  graceful  and  branching  form.  The  limbs 
may  commence  about  six  feet  from  the  ground.  Pruning 
should  be  done  aimually,  as  the  labor  is  then  trifling ;  and 
the  expenditure  of  vital  force  in  maturing  wood  which  is 
afterwards  to  be  cut  off,  is  thus  saved,  and  the  branches  to 
be  removed  being  small,  the  wounds  readil)'  heal.  In  this 
case,  no  covering  is  required  for  the  Avouud,  as  one  season's 
growth  will  heal  it.  The  top  should  be  sufiiciently  open 
to  admit  the  sun  and  air. 

The  best  time  for  trimming  is  when  the  f-ee  is  in  blooin, 
and  the  sap  in  full  flow.  The  proper  instrument  is  a  fin? 
saw  or  sharp  knife,  and  the  limb  should  be  cut  ofl"  close  to 
the  remaining  branch.  The  sap  at  this  time  is  active,  and 
is  readily  converted  into  new  bark  and  Avood,  which  speed- 
ily forms  over  the  cut.  But  this  is  a  busy  season  with  the 
farmer,  and  if  he  cannot  then  prune  his  trees,  he  may  do 
it  when  more  convenient,  taking  care  to  secure  the  wounds 
by  an  efficient  covering  of  salve.  Old  trees,  or  such  as 
are  growing  vigorously  and  have  been  long  neglected,  often 
require  severe  trimming,  which  should  always  be  done  in 
May  or  June ;  and  when  the  ^vounds  are  large,  they  must 
be  covered  with  a  coat  of  thick,  Spanish-brown  paint  or 
grafting  wax.  If  they  are  Irft  exposed,  and  the  growth  of 
the  t/ee  be  sl:w,  decay  will  often  take  place  before  thev 


FRtnTs.  253 

are  healed  Too  much  care  cannot  be  used  in  these  ope- 
rations. In  large  trees,  a  ladder  ought  always  to  be  ai 
hand,  to  avoid  breaking  the  limbs  by  the  weight  of  tho 
operator.  If  by  too  close  planting  the  branches  of  dilfer- 
ent  tress  be  brought  into  contact,  thorough  pruning  is  ab- 
solutely necessary,  as  without  it,  good  fruit  cannot  be 
obtained. 

Grafting  ayid  budding. — These  operations  are  so  simple, 
and  usually  so  w^ell  known  by  some  individual  in  every 
farming  neighborhood,  that  no  description  of  either  opera- 
tion is  necessary.  Graftiyig  xoax  of  the  best  kind  is  made 
with  four  parts  of  rosin,  one  of  tallow  and  one  of  beeswax, 
melted  and  stirred  together,  then  poured  into  a  vessel  of  cold 
water.  As  soon  as  cool  enough,  work  and  draw  it  out  by 
hand,  like  shoe-makers'  wax,  until  it  is  entirely  pliable.  It 
may  then  be  used  immediately,  or  laid  up  and  kept  for  years. 
The  mode  of  applying  it  is  known  to  every  grafter. 

Scioyis  must  be  the  growth  of  the  preceding  year,  and 
cut  from  well  ripened,  thrifty  wood,  in  the  months  of  Janu- 
ary, February  or  March,  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell  with 
the  flow  of  the  spring  sap.  Tie  them  up  and  keep  in  a 
moist,  cool  place,  a  cellar  bottom,  or  box  of  moss  or  earth 
till  ready  for  use.  When  circumstances  require  it,  grafts 
may  be  cut  at  any  time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  but  the 
months  indicated  are  best  in  all  localities  north  of  lat.  40°. 
The  best  time  for  budding  is  in  July  and  August.  This  sliould 
be  done  while  the  sap  is  in  flow  and  the  bark  is  loose,  as  at 
no  other  time  is  success  certain. 

Selection  of  trees. — Select  these  from  seedlings.  Suck- 
ers from  the  roots  of  mature  trees  are  objectionable,  as  tend- 
ing to  throw  up  suckers  themselves,  which  are  always 
troublesome.  When  they  appear,  cut  them  close  to  the 
root  or  stem,  and  if  properly  done  they  will  rarely  sprout 
anew. 

Planting  the  seed. — If  the  farmer  wish  to  raise  his  own 
trees,  he  can  sow  the  seed  or  pomace  in  rows  in  the  fall. 
After  they  come  up  in  the  spring,  weed  and  hoe  them  like 
aay  vegetable.  When  a  year  old  they  should  be  carefully 
taken  up,  the  tap  root  cut  ofl"  and  replanted  in  rows  four 
feet  apart,  and  at  least  a  foot  distant  in  the  rows.  They 
should  be  regularly  cultivated  till  they  are  one  and  a  half  or 
two  inches  diameter  at  the  base,  at  which  time  they  are  fit 
for  the  orchard.  These  operations  are,  however,  the  appro- 
priate business  of  the  nurseryman,  for  ^^•llose  guidance  thevo 


854  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

should  alwa/s  be  at  hand  some  standard  ■work  :>n  the  culti- 
vation of  fruits.  Of  these,  Kenrick's,  Downing's  and  Hovey's 
are  at  present  the  best  American  treatises. 

Gatheri/:g  and  preserving . — For  immediate  use,  apples 
may  be  shaken  from  the  tree.  For  winter  consumption  or 
packing  for  market,  they  should  be  carefully  picked  by  hand 
with  the  aid  of  ladders,  to  avoid  bruising  the  fruit  and  injur- 
ing the  limbs.  To  preserve  apples,  the  best  method  is  to  lay 
them  carefully  into  tight  barrels  or  boxes  immediately  after 
picking,  with  a  thin  layer  of  perfectly  dry  chaff  on  the  bottom , 
fl,nd  after  being  lightly  shaken  together,  another  layer  of 
chaff  on  the  tojD  may  be  added,  though  this  is  not  essential. 
They  may  then  be  tightly  headed  or  covered  so  as  to  exclude 
the  air.  Then  put  the  boxes  or  barrels  away  into  a  dry 
place,  and  keep  as  cold  as  possible  above  the  freezing  point. 
But  if  slightly  frozen,  they  will  not  be  injured  if  suffered  to 
remain  unpacked  till  the  frost  leaves  them.  When  thus 
managed,  the^  will  keep  as  long  as  they  are  capable  of  pre- 
servation. Bins  in  the  cellar  are  good  for  ordinary  use,  if 
closely  covered.  When  exposed  to  the  air,  warmth  or 
moisture,  apples  soon  decay.  If  too  dry,  they  wilt  and 
become  tasteless.  They  are  sometimes  buried  in  the  earth 
like  potatoes,  but  this  impairs  the  flavor  and  gives  them  an 
earthy  taste  ;  and  they  seldom  keep  so  well  after  removal 
in  the  spring  as  Avhen  they  have  been  stored  in  barrels. 

For  farm  stock,  apples  are  healthful  and  fattening,  and 
the  better  the  quality  of  fruit  the  more  valuable  are  they  for 
this  object.  A  variety  of  both  sweet  and  sub-acid  should 
be  cultivated.  The  saccharine  matter  of  the  apple  is  essen- 
tially the  fattening  property,  and  this  abounds  in  some  kinds 
of  the  sub-acid.  Animals  like  a  change  in  their  food  as  well 
as  man,  and  both  sweet  and  sour  may  be  fed  to  them  alter- 
nately. When  the  soil  and  climate  are  adapted  to  them, 
food  from  apples  can  probably  be  more  cheaply  supplied  to 
stock  in  the  northern  States,  than  from  any  other  plants  of 
artificial  cultivation,  excepting  grass  and  clover.  Swine 
have  been  often  fatted  upon  them  with  an  occasional  change 
to  grain  ;  and  when  fed  to  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  with  hay, 
ihey  are  almost  equivalent  to  roots.  That  tree  must  be 
badly  cultivated,  which  in  ten  years  after  planting,  will  not 
produce  five  bushels  of  apples  in  a  season,  and  these  at  ten 
cents  a  bushel  give  an  annual  revenue  of  fifty  cents  a  tree, 
or  twenty  dollars  pjr  acre  for  stock-feeding  alone.  At 
twenty  years  old,  tht   tre^  will  double  that  product  casual- 


Fnrr_*.  255 

ties  excepted ;  and  as  tins  estinate  is  based  on  their  least 
valuable  use,  an  increased  profit  may  be  anticipated  from 
their  conversion  to  other  purposes.  Good  apples  are  rarely 
worth  less  than  twjnty-five  cents  a  bushel ;  often  three  or 
four  times  that  amount.  The  presence  of  swine  among  any 
kind  of  fruit  trees,  greatly  conduces  to  their  thrift.  Besides 
the  support  of  the  swine  derived  from  the  fruit,  their  con- 
sumption of  windfalls  secures  the  destruction  of  such  insects 
as  are  injurious  to  the  trees  or  fruit,  and  the  manure  they 
drop,  together  with  the  loosening  of  the  earth,  resulting 
from  constant  rooting  and  the  tread  of  their  sharp  hoofs,  is 
of  essential  advantage  to  the  growth  and  healthfulness  of 
the  trees.  Sheep,  turkeys,  ducks  and  chickens  answer  the 
same  purpose  in  a  considerable  degree,  when  suffered  to  fre- 
quent the  orchards  in  sufficient  numbers. 

Making  cider. — Good  fruit  is  indispensable  to  the  making 
of  good  cider.  The  suitable  time  fo^  grinding  is  in  October 
and  November,  and  apples  designed  to  be  thus  appropriated 
should  ripen  in  these  months.  Such  as  are  slightly  acid  are 
preferable  for  this  purpose.  As  far  as  practicable,  the  fruit 
should  be  of  one  kind,  fully  ripe,  but  sound  and  undecayed. 
The  mill  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  hot  water,  and 
capable  of  grinding  the  pomace  fine.  This  should  lie  in  the 
vat  at  least  forty-eight  hours  after  grinding,  and  be  turned 
once  or  twice  before  its  removal  into  the  cheese.  Pomace 
so  exposed,  absorbs  large  quantities  of  oxygen,  thus  under- 
going a  necessary  preparation  for  its  conversion  into  good 
cider.  All  fruits  are  subject  to  this  change,  to  a  certain 
extent,  just  before  ripening.  When  their  juices  are  express- 
ed or  the  pulp  broken  and  exposed  to  the  air,  this  effect  is 
increased,  and  constitutes  the  saccharine  fermentatio7i.  In 
both  cases,  the  result  is  to  increase  the  palatable  and  nutri- 
tive properties  of  the  fruit,  by  converting  their  starch,  gum 
and  other  vegetable  matters  into  sugar. 

When  the  pomace  has  been  sufficiently  pressed,  it  may  be 
fed  to  cattle,  sheep  or  swine,  and  the  liquor  put  into  barrels 
under  cover,  and  allowed  to  remain  till  the  pulp  or  fecu- 
lant  matter  has  been  thrown  out  at  the  bung  ;  and  to  aid  its 
removal  the  barrel  should  be  kept  full.  The  second  fermen- 
tation is  the  vinous,  and  by  it  a  portion  of  alcohol  is 
developed.  This  fermentation  is  slowly  continued  afterwards 
in  the  enclosed  cask,  until  it  reaches  from  six  to  nine  pei 
sent.  When  fer  rientation  apparently  subsides,  take  a  clean 
cask,  in  which  a  smtU  quaJitityof  sulphur  has  been  burned. 


256       '  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

to  arrest  any  subsequent  tendency  of  the  liquid  to  change, 
draw  the  cider  into  this  and  buna;  tightly  to  exclude  the  air. 
The  addition  of  charcoal,  raisins,  mustard  seed  or  fresh  meat 
produces  the  same  effect  as  the  ignited  sulphur.  After 
standing  two  or  three  months,  closely  confined,  and  in  a  cool 
place,  it  may  be  drawn  off  and  tightly  bottled  for  use.  Its 
long  preservation  and  improvement  will  depend  on  its  being 
kept  cool  and  well  corko-i.  In  addition  to  its  possessing  a 
small  proportion  of  alcohol,  it  then  contains  large  quantities 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  ■which  occasions  its  rapid  effervescence 
when  uncorked,  and  gives  to  it  that  peculiarly  pungent  and 
agreeable  flavor,  so  highly  relished  in  the  best  spo  ■"'mens  of 
the  Newark  cider. 

Vinegar. — If  the  cider  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cask 
in  which  it  is  first  placed,  and  exposed  to  a  warm  temperature, 
it  continues  greedily  to  absorb  oxygen,  and  quickly  under- 
goes another  fermentation,  called  the  acetic,  by  which  it  is 
converted  into  vinegar.  If  intended  solely  for  this  purpose, 
the  best  and  richest  fruits  give  the  strongest,  best-flavored 
and  soundest  (most  reliable)  vinegar.  When  it  has  acquired 
its  perfection,  the  vinegar  should  be  kept  air-tight  and  at  a 
low  temperature. 

Best  varieties  of  apples  for  cultivation. — Almost  every 
section  of  the  apple-growing  regions  of  America,  has  a 
greater  or  less  variety  peculiar  to  itself;  and  their  valuable 
properties  appear  more  fully  developed  in  these  localities 
than  when  removed  to  others.  Such  should  of  course  be 
retained  when  of  extraordinary  excellence.  There  are  some, 
however,  which  are  of  more  general  cultivation,  cosmopolites 
throughout  the  apple  climates,  of  fine  quality,  and  possess- 
ing all  the  excellence  of  which  the  genus  is  capable.  Thirty 
different  kinds  for  each  section  or  State  will  probably  include 
all  which  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate,  and  for  any  one  location 
perhaps  twenty  is  sufficient.  I  mention  below,  the  names 
of  30  standard  varieties,  all  of  which  are  now  in  successful 
cultivation  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
They  are  described  by  Downing,  in  his  late  work  on  the 
fruit  trees  of  America,  1845. 

Sitmmer  Apples. — Early  Harvest,  Red  Astracan,  Large 
Yellow  Bough,  Williams'  Favorite. 

Autumn  Apples. — Golden  Sweet,  Fall  Pippin,  Graven- 
stein,  Jersey  Sweeting,  Pumpkin  Russet  (by  some,  the 
Bellebonne),  and  Rambo. 

Winter    Apples. --'Wesi^elA  Seek-no-farther,   Baldwin, 


FRUITS.  25T 

Black  Apple,  Yellow  Belle  fleur,  Detroit,  Hubbardston 
Nonesuch,  Green  and  Yellow  Newtown  Pipf  in.  Northern 
Spy,  Blue  Pearmain,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Rhode  Island  Green 
Jng,  American  Golden  Russet,  English  Russet,  Roxburs 
Russet,  Swaar,  Ladies'  Sweeting,  Talman's  Sweeting,  Esq 
p^is  Spitzenberg,  Waxen  A^iple,  Wine  Apple. 

THE  PEAR. 

The  pear  is  one  of  the  most  luscious,  wholesome  and  pro- 
fitable of  the  market  fruits,  though  not  comparable  to  the 
apple  for  variety  and  general  use.  In  a  good  soil  and  under 
proper  cultivation,  it  is  both  vigorous  and  hardy.  It  is  bud- 
ded and  grafted  like  the  apple,  and  requires  the  same  treat- 
ment ;  it  is  as  easy  of  propagation,  frequently  attains  a 
greater  size  and  age,  and  although  longer  arriving  at  matu- 
rity, it  is  a  more  abundant  bearer.  Its" favorite  soil  is  a  clay 
loam.  It  needs  little  pruning,  but  usually  it  throws  out  an 
upright,  graceful  head,  free  from  excessive  bushiness.  The 
trees  may  be  planted  30  feet  apart,  an  abundance  of  sun 
being  requisite  to  full  bearing  and  the  perfection  of  the  fruit. 

Diseases. — The  pear  is  seldom  subject  to  more  than  one 
formidable  disease,  the  fire  blight,  and  to  this,  it  is  more  ex- 
posed in  some  localities  than  others.  The  disease  manifests 
itself  generally  in  mid-summer,  in  the  sudden  witherino-  of 
the  leaves  on  one  or  more  branches.  The  only  effec°ual 
remedy  is  to  cut  off  and  burn  the  diseased  limb,  immediately 
upon  its  discovery.  The  causes  are  imperfectly  known,  but 
it  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  minute  in- 
sects, to  the  excessive  flow  of  sap,  and  to  the  severity  of  the 
winter. 

Gathering  and  preserving  the  fruit. — Many  pears  re- 
quire to  be  picked  just  before  they  are  ripe,  and  allowed  to 
mature  in  the  shade.  They  thus  acquire  a  rich,  juicy 
character  they  would  not  otherwise  attain.  Those  intended 
for  market  or  for  long  keeping,  should  be  hand-picked  and 
laid  in  a  cool  place  ;  and  when  perfectly  dry,  put  up  in  casks 
like  apples.  Winter  pears  may  be  packed  for  preservation 
like  winter  apples. 

The  varieties  to  be  selected  depend  entirely  on  the  object 
of  their  cultivation.  For  market,  the  best  and  most  popu- 
lar kinds  only  should  be  chosen ;  and  for  family  use,  an 
equally  good  selection  should  be  made  of  those  maturint' 
throughout  the  entire  season.  '^ 

I  subj(  in,  i'j  their  order  of  ripKiing,  a  dozen  cho  ce  kinds, 


858  AMERICAN    A3RICULTITRE. 

the  cultivation  of  which  has  thus  far  been  thoroughly  suc- 
cessful, and  the  qualities  universally  approved.  The  most 
of  these  are  pears  of  American  origin,  which  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred as  promising  more  durability,  hardiness  and  perfect 
adaptation  to  our  climate  and  soils.  I  quote  from  Downing 
on  fruits. 

Sumyner  a?id  Early  Autumn  Pears. — Bloodgood,  Dear- 
born's Seedlings,  Bartlett  or  Williams'  Bon  Chretien, 
Ste^'%ns'  Genesee. 

Autumn  Pears. — Beurre  Diel,  Seckel,  Dix,  White  Doy- 
enne or  Virgalieu,  Duchess  D'Angouleme. 

Winter  Pears. — Beurre  D'Aramberg,  Columbia,  Winter 
Nelis,  Priuce's  St.  Germain. 

THE  QUINCE. 

This  is  also  a  valuable  market  fruit.  It  makes  a  rich, 
highly-flavored  sweetmeat,  and  to  this  use  it  is  entirely 
limited.  The  tree  is  easily  raised  by  suckers  and  cuttings, 
and  should  be  planted  fifteen  feet  apart,  in  a  rich,  warm, 
heavy  soil  (a  clayey  loam  is  the  best),  rather  moist,  and  in  a 
sunny  exposure  where  it  will  be  sheltered  from  cold  and 
severe  winds.  The  wash  of  a  barn-yard  is  its  best  manure, 
and  it  repays  equally  with  the  apple,  for  good  cultivation. 
The  fruit  is  large,  sometimes  weighing  a  pound,  of  h  rich, 
golden  color,  and  generally  free  from  worms  and  other 
imperfections.  It  ripens  in  October  and  November.  The 
oransfe  quince  is  the  best  variety  for  common  cultivation. 
The  tree  requires  but  little  pruning.  The  trunk  may  be 
entire  for  tv/o  or  three  feet,  or  branch  from  the  ground  by 
two  or  more  stems.  The  top  should  be  kept  open  to  admit 
the  sun  and  air,  and  the  trunk  freed  from  suckers.  When 
thus  treated,  it  will  live  long  and  produce  abundantly. 

THE  CHERRY. 

Aside  from  the  value  of  its  fruit,  the  cherry  is  an  orna- 
mental shade  tree,  hardy  and  vigorous  in  its  growth,  and 
easy  of  propagation.  It  should  be  planted  like  the  apple. 
For 'culinary  purposes,  the  common  red  cherry  is  perhaps 
the  best.  This  may  stand  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  apart, 
according  to  the  soil  and  situation.  The  large  Mazard  or  the 
English  cherry  requires  more  room,  and  if  on  a  deep,  warm, 
sandy  loam,  its  favorite  soil,  it  should  be  planted  two  rods 
apart  as  it  grows  to  a  large  size.  It  will  flourish  luxuri- 
antly on  a  clay  loai'.  or  an  opea  gravel,  provided  the  soil  be 


FRUITS.  259 

rich  and  deep ;  but  on  these,  it  demands  more  careful  culti- 
vation. It  seldom  requires  much  pruning.  Care  must  be 
used  with  this  as  with  all  other  fruit  trees,  to  give  it  an  open 
head  and  to  keep  the  limbs  from  crossing  and  chafing  each 
other.  The  varieties  most  in  use  are  the  Common  Red, 
Kentish  or  Pie  Cherry,  almost  universally  cultivated,  the 
English  Mayduke,  Bktck  Tartarian  (Grafiion  or  Yellov/ 
Spanish,)  the  largi  Red  Bigarreau,  Elton,  Belle  de  Choisy 
and  the  late  Duke.  These  will  form  a  succession  of  six 
weeks  in  ripening  and  embrace  their  entire  season.  The 
cherry  is  remarkably  free  from  disease,  and  usually  requires 
but  ordinary  care  in  its  cultivation. 

THE  PLUM. 

The  plum  affords  some  of  the  most  delicious  of  our  culti- 
vated fruits.  It  prefers  a  strong  clay  loam,  but  does  well  in 
nearly  all  soils,  except  a  light  sand.  It  should  be  planted 
like  the  apple,  though  on  a  more  limited  scale,  as  it  has  a 
smaller  and  less  vigorous  growth.  The  proper  distance  is 
sixteen  to  twenty  feet.  There  are  two  formidable  impedi- 
ments in  the  cultivation  of  the  plum.  One  is  an  insect, 
which  attacks  the  "wood,  and  deposits  its  g.^^  in  the  smaller 
branches.  This  is  followed  by  a  large  swelling  or  excres- 
cence and  if  suffered  to  remain,  will  soon  destroy  its  produc- 
tiveness. The  surest  remedy  is  to  cut  off  the  branch  at 
once  and  burn  it. 

The  Curculio  commits  its  depredations  on  the  young 
fruit,  soon  after  the  blossoms  disappear.  These  are  frequent- 
ly so  destructive  as  to  kill  the  fruit  of  an  entire  orchard. 
Several  methods  of  destroying  them  have  been  suggested, 
of  Avhich  the  most  simple  and  effectual  is,  to  plant  the  trees 
in  such  places  as  will  admit  the  swine  and  poultry  to  feed 
upon  the  fallen  fruit  and  insects.  Salt  sprinkled  around  the 
tree  in  the  spring,  is  said  to  destroy  them.  The  smoke  of 
rotten  wood,  leaves  and  rubbish  which  have  been  burned 
under  the  trees  when  in  blossom,  has  sometimes  proved 
beneficial.  Paving  the  earth  under  the  limbs  to  prevent  the 
burrowing  of  the  insects,  and  some  other  remedies  are  re- 
commended. This  is  a  serious  evil,  requiring  more  obser- 
vation and  experiment  than  it  has  yet  received. 

Varieties. — The  common  Blue  or  Horse  plum  is  cultiva 
ted  in  numerous  sub- varieties.  Some  of  these  are  very  goo^ 
others  uf^erly  worthless.  Good  plums  are  as  easily  raised 
as  poor  ones,  and  these  only  ought  to  hi  cultivated.     Young 


260  AMEE.CAN    AGRICULTURE. 

trees  bearing  an  indifferent  fruit,  can  be  headed  down  and 
grafted  as  readily  a.i  apples,  but  this  requires  to  be  done  a 
month  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell. 
The  best  kinds  are  the  Yellow,  Green,  Autumn,  Bleecker's, 
Imperial,  Prince's  Yellow,  Frost,  Purple  and  the  Red 
Gages ;  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  the  Jefferson,  the  Grange,  the 
Washington,  the  Columbia,  Smith's  Orle?is,  and  the  Red 
Magnum  Bonum. 

This  last  variety  is  more  Uable  to  the  attacks  of  the  curcu- 
lio  than  many  others.  But  its  vigorous  growth,  great  pro- 
ductiveness when  not  attacked,  and  its  excellent  quality  lor 
the  table  render  it  a  desirable  fruit.  For  dryi?ig,  the  Ger- 
man prune  is  perhaps  the  best,  although  several  of  the  plums 
above  named  answer  an  excellent  purpose.  I  have  enume- 
rated a  larger  variety  of  plums  from  the  ditficult}'  of  cultiva- 
ting the  peach  successfully  in  many  parts  of  the  northern 
States.  They  ripen  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  though 
not  as  delicious  nor  generally  as  popular,  they  are  the  best  sub- 
stitutes for  it.  Although  liable  to  several  diseases,  the  pium 
is  more  hardy  and  durable  than  the  peach,  and  its  cultivation 
is  comparatively  easy. 

THE  PEACH. 

In  the  early  settlement  of  our  country  and  on  virgin 
soil,  the  peach  was  easily  propagated,  free  from  disease,  an 
abundant  bearer  and  comparatively  long-lived.  If  we  ex- 
cept tlie  first  feature  in  its  early  history,  we  shall  find  it 
generally,  differing  widely  in  each  of  the  others  at  the  present 
day.  It  has  become  subject  to  so  many  casualties,  as  to  have 
been  almost  entirely  discarded  in  large  sections  of  the  United 
States,  where  it  once  flourished  in  the  highest  perfection. 
It  is  now  most  frequently  reared  on  an  extensive  scale  for 
market,  by  those  wlio  make  it  an  exclusive  business. 

Its  favorite  soil  is  a  light,  warm,  sandy  or  gravelly  loam, 
in  a  sunny  exposure,  protected  from  severe  bleak  winds. 
Thus  situated  and  in  favorable  latitudes,  it  grows  with  great 
luxuriance  and  produces  the  most  luscious  fruit.  In  western 
New  York,  and  on  most  of  the  southern  borders  of  the  great 
lakes,  the  peach  grows  more  vigorously  and  lives  longer  than 
in  any  other  sections  of  flie  United  States,  frequently  lasting 
20  to  30  years,  and  bearing  constantly  and  in  abundance. 
Peaches  are  produced  in  immense  quantities  on  the  light 
soils  near  the  Atlantic  coast,   m  the  States  of  New  Jersey 


FRUITS.  861 

and  Dela  ware.  The  crop  of  a  single  proprietor  often  amounts 
to  $5,000,  and  sometimes  exceeds  $20,000  annually. 

None  but  the  choicest  kinds  are  there  cultivated,  and 
these  are  innoculated  upon  the  seedling  when  a  year  old. 
They  are  transplanted  at  two  and  three,  and  are  worn  out, 
cut  down  and  burned  at  the  age  of  from  six  to  twelve  years. 
The  proper  distance  for  them  to  stand,  is  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet  apart,  according  to  situation,  soil  and  exposure.  Con- 
stant cultivation  of  the  ground  is  necessary  for  their  best 
growth  and  bearing. 

Diseases. — The  peach  is  liable  to  many  diseases,  and  to 
the  depredations  of  numerous  enemies.  The  Yellows  is  the 
most  fatal  in  its  attacks,  and  this  can  only  be  checked  by 
the  immediate  removal  of  the  diseased  tree  from  the  orchard 
Of  the  insects,  the  grub  or  peach  worm  is  the  most  destruc- 
tive. It  punctures  the  bark,  and  lays  its  egg  beneath  it  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  When  discovered,  it  should  be 
killed  with  a  penknife  or  pointed  wire.  A  good  preventive 
is  to  form  a  cone  of  earth  a  foot  high  around  the  trunk  about 
the  first  of  June ;  or  if  made  of  leached  ashes,  it  would  be 
better.  Remove  this  heap  in  October,  and  the  bark  wil . 
harden  below  the  reach  of  the  fly  the  following  year. 

Varieties. — The  best  kinds  in  succession,  from  early  to 
late,  are  the  Red  and  Yellow  Rareripes,  Malacatune,  Early 
York,  Early  Tillotson,  George  the  Fourth,  Morris'  Red  and 
White  Rareripes,  Malta  and  Royal  George.  These  succeed 
each  other  from  August  to  October. 

THE  APRICOT  AND  NECTARINE. 

These  are  of  the  peach  family,  but  generally  inferior  as  a 
fruit  and  much  more  difficult  of  cultivation,  being  peculiarly 
liable  to  casualties  and  insects.  They  require  the  same 
kinds  of  soil  and  cultivation  as  the  peach,  with  a  warmer 
exposure.  As  they  are  propagated  solely  as  an  article  of 
luxury  and  are  not  wanted  or  general  use,  I  omit  further 
notice  of  them. 

THE  OlATE  (Olea  europaea). 

This,  next  to  <he  fig  and  goplier.  is  the  eafrliest  tree  men- 
tioned in  history.  (Gen.  8,  11.)  It  was  ever  a  favorite  with 
sacred  and  profane  writers,  and  it  is  consecrated  by  both,  and 
among  all  nations  Avherever  cultivated,  as  the  cherished 
emblem  of  peace,  prosperity  and  abundance. 

It  grows  spomaneously  in  the  temperate  regions  of  Asia 


262  AMERIC/-N    AGRICULTURE. 

and  Africa;  and  from  the  earliest  period,  it  lias  beer  ji-pa- 
gated  in  the  soutberu  part  of  Europe.  It  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  support  of  the  human  race,  in  every  age  of 
the  world  ;  and  it  continues  at  the  present  time,  to  yield  large 
quantities  of  food,  materials  for  the  arts,  and  immense  reve- 
nues wherever  it  is  made  an  object  of  attention.  The  small 
kingdom  of  Naples  exports  yearly  7,000,000  gallons  of  olive 
oil.  The  value  of  the  aimual  production  in  France  as  early 
as  1788,  was  $15,000,000  ;  yet  she  has  since  increased  hei 
consumption  by  importation  from  abroad,  to  the  extent  of 
§6,000,000  in  a  single  year. 

The  olive  was  introduced  into  the  Carolinas  soon  after  their 
first  settlement  by  European  emigrants.  Richard  Blome, 
an  old  ^\^:iter  who  describes  the  country  in  1678,  says, 
"  the  olive  trees  brought  from  Portugal  and  Bermuda  in- 
crease exceedingly,  and  will  produce  a  quantity  of  oil." 
Gov.  Glum,  states  that  "  he  lost  an  olive  by  intense  frost  in 
January,  1747,  of  18  inches  diameter;"  and  Dr.  Milligan, 
of  Cliarleston,  adds  in  1763,  "  we  have  plenty  of  olives." 

The  tree  is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings,  layers  or  seeds  ; 
and  it  is  a  hardy,  self-sustaining  tree  when  not  exposed  to  very 
severe  frosts.  It  will  even  remain  uninjured  in  this  country, 
under  an  exposure  that  cuts  down  the  sweet  orange  and 
other  trees  reared  among  us  successfully.  It  may  perhaps, 
find  obstacles  to  its  productiveness  in  our  protracted,  sultry 
weather,  remote  from  the  sea  ;  yet  vre  have  a  long  belt  of 
coast  and  sterile  hilly  lands  at  the  South,  adapted  to  its 
growth,  over  much  of  whose  area  it  will  undoubtedly  flour- 
ish. It  loves  a  thin,  dry,  calcareous  soil,  and  when  once 
planted,  it  will,  with  little  care,  continue  to  yield  large 
arumal  returns  for  centuries.  The  olive  is  among  the 
lonffest-lived  trees,  whether  ^vild  or  domesticated,  and  though 
hitherto  comparatively  but  little  cultivated  among  us,  is  wor- 
thy of  the  particular  attention  of  southern  agriculturists. 

Uses. — The  olive  furnishes  more  fixed  oil  than  all  other 
vesctables  combined,  and  this  is  of  very  extensive  use,  both 
in  the  arts  and  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  fruit  is  crushed  in  a 
mill  and  reduced  to  a  pulp,  and  is  then  subjected  to  pressiire, 
The  oil  floats  on  the  surface  :)f  the  expressed  liquid,  and 
after  being  drawn  off  and  clariiled,  is  fit  for  use.  A  portion 
of  tlie  best  is  bottled  for  the  table,  and  the  remaindei 
is  put  up  in  barrels  for  coarser  uses.  A  few  comparatively, 
are  reserved  for  pickling,  and  are  much  relished  by  those 
accustomed  tJ  them 


FRUITS.  J63 


THE  ORANGE . 

The  wild  or  hitter  mange  is  found  in  Florida,  in  groves 
60metimes  of  thirty  miles  in  extent.  From  its  existing  in  nc 
other  part  of  North  America,  in  its  natural  state,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  planted  there  by  the  Spaniards,  in  the 
uarly  settlement  of  the  country.  This  is  the  more  probable, 
:.-o;n  its  ready  propagation, and  the  deterioration  of  the  fruit 
from  neglect.  These  native  stocks  are  hardy,  and  are  usu- 
ally taken  for  grafting,  or  more  frequently,  innoculating 
v/iih  the  best  cultivated  varieties.  They  afford  a  taller,  har- 
dier tree,  and  more  vigorous  and  glossy  foliage  than  the 
cultivated.  They  bear  a  profusion  of  fruit  which,  however,  is 
worthless. 

There  are  many  choice  kinds,  among  which,  are  the  "Man- 
darin,  the  Navel,  the  Chinese,  the  Blood-red,  the  Sweet- 
skinned,  the  Pear-shaped  and  the  Seedless.  They  grow 
in  profusion  in  Louisiana,  Florida,  Georgia,  S.  Carolina  and 
Texas,  Avhere  they  afford  a  remunerating  crop  to  the  planter. 
The  soil  most  propitious  to  the  orange,  is  moist  yet  not 
wet,  varying  between  a  loamy  sand  and  light  clay,  but 
loose  and  fertile. 

They  are  propagated  by  layers,  suckers  or  seeds  ;  but  are 
usually  innoculated  or  grafted.  They  require  little  attention 
except  to  guard  them  from  frost  where  the  climate  is  severe. 
Most  of  the  orange  groves  in  Florida,  were  killed  down  to 
the  roots  by  severe  frosts,  in  the  winter  of  1834  and  '35.  B:it 
they  generally  withstand  the  effects  of  frost  near  the  Guif 
coast.  The  worst  enemy  to  tlie  orange  tree  in  this  country, 
has  been  the  Coccidce  or  hark  lice,  which  fasten  themselves 
by  a  thin  pellicle  or  covering  to  the  bark,  beneath  which  a  fa- 
mily of  these  insects  grow  up,  and  gradually  extend  their  pro- 
geny by  the  same  means,  over  the  whole  trunk  and  branches, 
No  effectual  remedy  has  been  discovered  against  their  rava- 
ges ;  and  many  extensive  plantations  have  been  cut  to  the 
ground,  in  the  hope  that  fresh  shoois  and  a  more  vigorous 
growth  would  withstand  their  dele:;erious  effects. 

The  produce  from  the  orange  tree  is  lar-^i-e,  avera<'"ing  in 
the  best  specimens,  under  favorable  circumstances,  2.000 
per  annum.  "Mr.  Alvarez  had  a  tree  on  the  St.  Johns,  in 
Florida,  which,  in  1829,  produced  6,500;  and  one  tree  in 
the  same  neighborhood,  is  said  to  have  yielded  10,000  m  one 
year."  {Browne' s  Trees  of  America)  They  yield  a  luscious. 
healthful  fruit,  and  their  cultiva:  an   should    be  extended 


B64  AMERICAN     VGRICULTURE. 

wherever  the  soil  and  climat3  will  admit  of  their  successfo) 
propagation. 

THE  FIG. 

The  fig  is  among  the  earliest  cultivated  and  most  popu- 
lar fruits.  It  existed  in  Paradise,  and  its  fruit  was 
undoubtedly  among  the  choicest  that  ministered  to  the 
support  of  our  first  parents.  "VVe  read  of  it  in  the  oldest 
historical  writers,  both  sacred  and  profane  ;  and  its  popular- 
ity has  descended  to  the  present  day,  wherever  the  soil  and 
climate  admit  of  its  cultivation. 

It  is  readily  propagated  by  suckers  and  cuttings,  from 
either  roots  or  branches,  or  it  may  be  grown  from  the  seed. 
It  grows  rapidly  and  Avith  slight  attention,  but  seldom  reaches 
a  large  size.  From  20  to  25  feet  in'  height  and  diameter, 
may  be  deemed  the  average  size  of  American  trees  ;  but 
they  have  been  knoA^Ti  elscAvhere,  when  arrived  at  an  advan- 
ced age,  to  have  doubled  these  dimensions. 

The  Banyan  Tree  of  India  {Ficus  benghalensis),  that 
propagates  itself  by  dropping  its  extended  branches  to  the 
ground,  where  they  take  root,  and  themselves  become  new 
trunks,  for  their  further  almost  indefinite  extension,  till  they 
overspread  acres,  is  a  species  of  fig,  bearing  an  edible  fruit 
of  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut.  This  and  some  other  of  the 
species  furnish  a  gum  from  their  sap,  somewhat  resembling 
caoutchouc  or  India  rubber. 

The  soil  best  suited  to  the  fig,  is  light,  rich  and  moist. 
It  is  subject  to  few  diseases  and  casualties,  except  from  the 
scorching  efiects  of  too  hot  a  sun.  It  loves  a  moist  climate, 
and  flourishes  best  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  coast. 

Tlie  Jig  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  Gulf  States,  and 
grows  luxuriantly  in  the  open  air,  as  far  north  as  36°  ;  and 
I  have  seen  some  of  the  hardier  kinds  flourishing  in  the  open 
grounds  near  Baltimore.  When  protected  by  walls  in  sum- 
mer and  the  trunks  guarded  properly  in  Avinter,  it  matures 
its  fruit  in  New  York.  Florida,  southern  Mississippi,  Lou 
isiana  and  Texas,  may  be  considered  its  most  productive 
locality  Avithin  the  Uniau.  Here  it  flourishes  with  scarcely 
any  attention,  and  is  sii^  ject  to  iew  casualties  or  diseases 
The  fruit  ripens  from  June  to  October,  according  to  the  soil. 
B-.tuation,  and  the  varieties  reared.  They  usually  pro 
duce  two  crops  in  one  season,  and  in  its  most  southerly  habi 
tat,  three.     The  fruit  pushes  directly  out  from  the  branche» 


FRUITS.  266 

and  twigs,  apparently  without  blossoming,  though  there  is  a 
minute  flower  concealed  within  the  fruit. 

The  varieties  are  almost  innumerable,  and  most  of  them 
delicious  when  grown  under  favorable  circumstances.  They 
are  also  healthful,  and  unlike  the  orange,  are  a  substantial 
food.  In  other  countries,  among  such  people  as  subsist  on 
light,  meagre  diet,  they  materially  contribute  to  the  suste- 
nance of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  a  gentle  laxative,  and 
are  frequently  used  as  a  mild  emollient. 

Their  ijroduction  is  this  country  has  been  limited  almost 
entirely  to  their  use  while  fresh.  We  lack  the  long-contin- 
ued, hot,  dry  ^veather  necessary  to  cure  them  in  the  open 
air.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  artificial  means  may  be  used 
for  preparing  them  for  profitable  export  to  those  sections  of 
the  country  where  they  are  not  raised.  In  this  view,  they 
may  be  deemed  an  important  addition  to  the  exports  of  our 
most  southern  territory,  at  some  future  day. 

THE  GRAPE. 

The  details  for  the  proper  rearing  of  this  fruit  demand  a 
volume,  but  I  can  only  refer  to  some  prominent  points  in  its 
cultivation.  It  grows  wild  and  in  abundance  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  tolerable  quality,  climbing  over 
trees,  rocks  and  fences  in  great  luxuriance.  I  have  seen 
in  the  eastern  States, a  dozen  excellent  native  varieties  of 
white,  black  and  purple,  of  diff"erent  .sizes,  shapes  and  flavor, 
growing  within  the  space  of  a  single  furlong.  So  abundant 
were  the  clustering  vines  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  the  vicinity 
of  Narraganset  Bay,  that  the  old  Northmen  who  discovered, 
and  for  a  short  time  occupied  the  country  in  the  12th  century, 
gave  it  the  appropriate  name  of  Vinland  or  the  Land  of 
Vines.  The  choicer  kinds  require  loose,  marly  soils,  with 
warm,  sunny  exposures  and  proper  trimming.  Thus  culti- 
vated, they  are  often  raised  with  profit.  The  more  choice 
and  delicate  kinds  of  the  imported  varieties,  must  have  pro- 
tection in  winter  and  glass  heat  in  summer,  and  are  therefore 
o.'.Uy  suited  to  a  well-arranged  conservatory. 

Varieties. — The  best  American  kinds  are  the  Isabella  and 
Catawba  for  the  middle,  and  the  Scuppernong  for  the  south- 
ern States.  North  of  latitude  41-  30,  neither  of  the  two 
former  ripen  certainly,  except  in  long  and  warm  seasons; 
and  it  is  better  for  the  cultivator  within  this  range,  to  select 
some  of  the  hardiest  and  best  wild  grapes  of  his  own  lati- 
tiide,  for  out  door  propagation.  Grafting  a  foreign  variety 
12 


266  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

on  a  hardy,  native  stock,  has  been  found  to  give  a  choic« 
fruit,  in  great  abundance,  and  with  more  certainty  than  iouid 
be  secured  by  au  entire  exotic.  Of  the  European,  the  vari- 
eties of  Ciias.^elas,  Black  Hamburgh,  and  Wliite  Muscat  of 
Alexandria,  are  the  best.  In  a  good  grapery  either  with  or 
witliout  artificial  heat  and  proper  attention,  these  can  undoubt- 
edly be  raised  at  a  price.which  would  yield  to  the  horticulturist 
an  adequate  return  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  they  are  the  best 
kinds  to  propagate,  furnishing  a  long  succession  of  fruit  in  its 
finest  variety. 

THE  CURRANT 

Is  the  first  in  importance  of  the  small  garden  fruits.  In 
the  culinary  department  it  has  ma.^y  valuable  uses  ;  and  it 
is  a  wholesome  and  delicious  fruit  when  ripe.  It  gro\vs 
with  the  greatest  certainty  and  luxuriance,  either  from  the 
suckers  or  cuttings.  The  ground  should  be  rich  and  well 
worked,  and  the  bushes  set  at  least  six  feet  apart.  They 
require  plenty  of  sun  and  air  like  all  other  frnirs.  The  red 
is  the  most  common  kind,  but  the  large  Dutch  AVhite  is 
sweeter  and  more  delicious,  a  great  bearer,  larger  and  as 
easily  cultivated.  The  English  Black  is  very  productive,  of 
great  size,  and  makes  a  fine  jelly.  It  has  peculiar  efficacy 
in  sickness.  The  usual  mode  of  planting  currants  near 
fences,  is  objectionable.  They  should  stand  out  where  the 
gardener  can  get  around  them,  and  be  properly  trimmed,  or 
they  soon  get  too  thick.  This  improves  the  fruit,  and  insects 
and  vermin  are  more  eflectually  prevented  from  harboring 
among  the  bushes. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY. 

This  makes  a  palatable  tart,  and  as  a  ripe  fruil,  possesses 
some  excellence.  It  is  easily  raised,  and  prefers  a  cool, 
moist  and  rich  soil  in  a  sheltered  position.  It  has  beer 
brought  to  the  highest  perfection  in  the  north  of  England 
and  Scotland,  under  the  influence  of  their  cool  weather  and 
interminable  fogs  and  rains.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
America,  but  with  little  success ;  for  though  frequently 
abundant,  the  flavor  is  indifferent  in  compdrison  with  Amer- 
ican fruits  generally.  For  those  who  design  to  cultivate 
them,  the  nursery  catalogues  are  a  s:.  fficient  reference.  A^ 
a  tart,  they  are  inferior  to  the  rhubarb  or  pie-p'ant,  which 
can  be  grown  with  little  trouble  or  expense,  ui  great  profu- 
sion iu  every  fertile  and  we]l-t.;lled  garden  ;  and  this  is  in 


FRUITS.  267 

season  from   Mi^y  till  August,  when  appl^"*.  are  sufficiently 
advanced  to  take  its  place. 

THE  RASPBERRY. 

Both  the  Red  and  Black  Raspberries  are  favorably  known 
as  a  wild  American  fruit.  As  a  market  fruit  near  the 
large  cities,  it  is  very  profitable.  It  prefers  a  light,  warm, 
dry  soil,  rich  and  thoroughly  loosened.  The  best  varieties 
grown  are  the  Red  and  Yellow  Antwerps,  which  produce 
abundantly,  and  are  of  fine  flavor ;  the  Franconia,  a  fine, 
large,  purple  fruit  ;  and  the  Fastolf,  a  late  English  Red  va- 
riety of  superior  size  and  flavor.  The  above  kinds  are  all 
hardy  in  latitude  43°  north.  They  are  propagated  by 
suckers,  and  should  be  planted  three  feet  apart  if  in  hills, 
and  four  feet  if  in  rows.  The  stalk  lives  but  two  years. 
The  first  season  it  shoots  up  from  the  root,  and  makes  its 
growth.  The  next  spring  it  should' be  topped  to  three  feet 
in  height,  the  old  stock  cut  out,  and  the  bearing  ones 
(which  ought  never  to  exceed  three  or  four  in  a  clump), 
should  be  securely  tied  to  a  stake  or  trellis.  If  the  ground 
be  well  hoed,  they  will  bear  profusely. 

THE   STRAWBERRY. 

This  delicious  and  wholesome  fruit  is  rapidly  spreadino" 
in  garden  cultivation  throughout  the  United  States.  It  will 
flourish  in  almost  any  good  soil  which  is  not  too  cold  oi 
wet.  The  plants  should  be  set  in  I'ows  two  feet  asunder, 
and  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows,  kept  clear  from  weeds,  and 
the  runners  cut  off  once  or  twice  in  the  growing  season. 
Beds  will  last  from  three  to  six  years,  depending  in  a  mea- 
sure, on  the  mode  of  cultivation.  The  fruit  is  in  season 
from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to  their  kinds.  Many 
horticulturists  have  found  ditliculty  in  procurino-  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  the  strawberry,  which  is  probably  owine  (when 
other  circumstances  are  favorable),  to  an  improper  arranoe- 
ment  of  the  male  and  female  plants.  Hovey's  Seed  lino-  and 
several  others  demand  the  presence  ot  the  male  plant  from 
some  other  variety,  to  fertilize  them  The  most  popular 
for  the  market  are  sub-varieties  of  the  Scarlet,  Pine,  Chili, 
and  Wood.  The  Methven  Castle,  Keene's,  Hovey's  Seed- 
lings and  Boston  Pine   are  among  the  most  highly  celebrated 

THE  AMERICAN  CRANBERRY  (Oxycocns  macrocarpus) 

Yields  one  of  the  most  dellciou;  of  our  tarts.  It  is  found 
in  great  abundance  in  many  low     swampy  grounds  in  ovj 


268  AMERICAN    AGRICULTTRE. 

northern  and  southern  States ;  and  although  it  has  been 
gathered  from  its  native  haunts  from  the  eail'est  settlement 
of  the  country,  yet  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  it  has 
become  an  object  of  cultivation.  Experience  has  probably 
not  yet  fully  developed  the  most  certain  means  of  attaining 
the  greatest  success,  but  enough  is  already  known,  to  as- 
sume that  they  are  a  profitable  object  of  atrention  to  the 
farmer. 

There  seems  to  be  several  varieties  of  the  cranberry, 
which  differ  in  size,  color,  shape  and  flavor.  Some  of  these 
are  worth  much  more  in  the  market  than  others  ;  and,  occa- 
sionally, the  choicest  have  sold  as  high  as  $3.50  per  bushel. 

Soil  and  cultivation. — They  are  generally  planted  on 
low,  moist  meadows,  which  are  prepared  by  thorough  ploAV- 
ing  and  harrowing.  They  are  then  set  in  drills  by  slips 
and  roots,  usually  in  the  spring,  but  sometimes  in  autunm, 
about  20  inches  apart,  and  at  distances  of  about  three  inches. 
They  require  to  have  the  weeds  kept  out,  and  the  ground 
stirred  with  a  light  cultivator  or  hoe,  and  they  will  soon 
overrim  and  occupy  the  whole  ground.  An  occasional  top 
dressing  of  swamp  muck  is  beneficial.  In  this  way,  300 
bushels  per  acre  have  been  produced  in  Massachusetts, 
which  were  worth  in  the  market  from  one  to  two  dollars 
per  bushel.  Capt.  Hall,  of  the  same  State,  raises  them  in 
a  swamp,  first  giving  it  a  top  dressing  of  sand  or  gravel  to 
kill  the  grass,  when  he  digs  holes  fottr  feet  apart,  and  inserts 
in  each,  a  sod  of  cranberry  plants  about  one  foot  square. 
From  these  sods  they  gradually  spread  till  the  whole  sur- 
face is  occupied. 

The  cranberry  is  sometimes  killed  by  late  or  early  frosts  ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested,  that  these  can  be  avoided  by 
having  the  fields  so  arranged,  when  frosts  may  be  expected, 
as  to  be  slightly  covered  with  water.  The  cranberry  is 
gathered  when  sutficiently  ripe,  by  raking  them  from  the 
bushes.  They  are  cleaued  from  the  stems,  leaves,  and  im- 
perfect berries,  by  washing  and  rolling  them  over-  smooth 
boards  set  on  an  inclined  plane,  in  the  same  manner  as  im- 
perfect shot  are  assorted.  After  this,  they  are  put  into  tight 
casks  and  filled  with  water.  If  stored  in  a  cool  place,  the 
water  changed  at  proper  intervals,  and  the  impeifect  berries 
occasionally  thrown  out,  they  will  keep  till  the  following 
summer.  They  will  frequently  bring  $20  per  barrel  in 
European  markets.     The  raking  of  the  plant  in  harvesting 


ROTATION    OP    UilOPS.  26J 

is  beneficial  rather  than  otherwise  ;  for  though  some  of  the 
plants  are  pulled  out  and  others  broken,  their  places  are 
more  than  supplied  by  the  subsequent  growth. 


CHAPTER   XII, 


MISCELLANEOUS  AIDS' AND  OBJECTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

I  HAVE  thus  far  treated  of  soils  and  manures,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  irround,  and  the  ordinary  cultivated  field  crops,  as 
fully  as  my  limits  permit.  It  remains  briefly  to  add  such 
incidental  aids  and  objects  of  agriculture,  as  could  not  ap- 
propriately be  embraced  under  either  of  the  foregoing  heads. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS-ITS  USES  AND  EFFECTS. 

The  practice  of  rotation  in  crops  is  an  agricultural  im^ 
provement  of  very  modern  date.  It  is  first  mentioned  in 
Dickson's  Treatise  on  Agriculture,  published  in  Edinburgh, 
in  1777.  For  more  than  a  century  it  has  been  partially 
practiced  in  Flanders,  and  perhaps  in  some  other  adjoining 
and  highly-cultivated  countries.  It  was  afterwards  intro- 
duced, and  imperfectly  carried  out  on  a  limited  scale  in  the 
Norfolk  district  in  Great  Britain  ;  but  its  general  introduc- 
tion did  not  take  place  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century.  The  system  of  rotation  is  one  of  the  first  and  most 
important  principles  of  general  husbandry,  and  it  cannot  be 
omitted  without  manifest  disadvantage  and  loss.  Its  place 
was  formerly  supplied  by  naked  fallows.  This  practice 
consists,  as  I  liave  before  shown,  in  giving  the  soil  an  occa- 
sional or  periodical  rest,  in  which  no  crop  is  taken  off,  and 
the  soil  is  allowed  to  produce  just  what  it  pleases  or  nothing 
at  all,  for  one  or  more  years,  when  it  is  refreshed  and  invig- 
orated for  the  production  of  its  accustomed  useful  crops. 
This  system,  it  will  be  perceived,  implies  the  loss  of  the  in- 
come from  the  soil  for  a  certain  portion  of  the  time,  and  it  can 
be  tolerated  only  where  there  is  more  land  t  han  can  be  cul- 
tivated. 


870 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


Modern  agricultural  science  has  detected,  in  part  at  least, 
the  true  theory  of  the  necessity  for  rotation.  It  has  been 
discovered,  that  every  crop  robs  the  soil  of  a  part  of  its  ele- 
ments, (fiftesn  or  sixteen  elementary  substances  combined  in 
various  forms  and  proportions),  and  that  no  two  dissimilar 
crops  abstract  these  elements  or  their  compounds  from  the 
soil,  in  the  same  proportions.  Thus,  if  we  consider  the 
amount  of  the  salts  taken  out  of  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  turneps, 
amounting  to  five  tons  of  roots  per  acre  ;  of  barley,  38 
bushels  ;  one  ton  each  of  dry  clover  or  rye  grass  ;  and  of 
wheat,  25  bushels,  we  shall  find  the  great  disproportions  of 
the  various  elements,  which  the  ditferent  vegetables  have 
appropriated.  As  given  by  Johnston  they  will  be  in  pounds 
as  follows : 


Turnep 
Roots. 

BARLEV. 

Red 
Clover. 

Rve 

Grass. 

WHEAT. 

TotaL 

Grain. 

Straw 

Grain. 

Straw. 

Potash    . . 

145.0 

5.6 
5.8 
2.1 
3.6 
0.5 
23.6 
1.2 
4  2 
0.4 

4.0 
1.1 

12.9 
1.8 
3.4 

90.0 
2.8 
3.7 
1.5 

45.0 
12.0 
63.0 
7.5 
0.3 
80 
100 
15.0 
8.0 

23.5 
9.0 

16.5 
2.0 
0.3 

62.0 
80 
0.6 
0.1 

3.3 
3.5 
1.5 

1.5 
0.4 
6.0 
0.3 
0.6 
0.2 

0.6 
0.9 
7.2 
1.0 
2.7 
86.0 
1.0 
5.0 
0.9 

233.0 

64  3 

96.6 

•  45  3 

149.0 

Magnesia 
Alumina  . 

15.5 

2.-2 

"^  fi 

32.9 

10.3 

299.2 

Sulphuric  Acid.     49.0 
Phosphoric  do..     2-2.4 
Chlorine 14.5 

72.3 
51.5 
25.6 

970  9* 

Besides  the  elements  above  noted,  all  crops  absorb  oxide 
of  iron,  and  nearly  all  oxide  of  manganese  and  iodine  ;  and 
of  the  organic  elements  associated  in  various  combinations, 
they  appropriate  about  97  per  cent,  of  their  entire  dried 
weight.  Now, it  is  not  only  necessary  that  all  the  above 
materials  exist  in  the  soil,  but  that  they  arc  also  to  he  found 
ifi  a  form  precisely  adapted  to  the  xoants  cf  the  growing 
pla7it.  That  they  exist  in  every  soil,  in  some  condition,  to 
au  amomit  large  enough  to  afford  the  quantity  required  by 
the  crop,  can  hardly  be  doubted ;  but  that  they  are  all  in  a 
form  to  supply  the  full  demands  of  a  luxuriant  crop,  is  pro- 
bably true  of  .such  only  as  are  found,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances of  season  and  climate,  to  have  produced  the 
largest  burthens. 

If  a  succession  of  any  given  crops  are  gathered  and 
carried  off  the  land,  without  the  occasional  addition  of 
manures,  they  will  be  found  gradually  to  diminish  in  quan- 
tity, till  they  reach  a  point  when  they  will  scarcely  pay  the 
expenses  of  cultivation.  I  mean  to  be  understood  as  affirm- 
ing this  of  all  crops  and  all  soils,  however  naturally  fertile 
•  This  is  exclusive  of  the  turnep  tops. 


EOTATIOK    OF    CROPS.  271 

the  latter  may  be  ;  iinless  they  are  such  as  receive  an  annual 
or  occasional  dressing  from  the  overflow  of  enriching  floods, 
or  are  artificially  .  rigated  with  such  water  as  holds  the 
necessary  fertilizing  matters  in  solution ;  and  such  are  not 
exceptions,  but  receive  their  manure  in  another  form, 
unaided  by  the  hand  of  the  husbandman.  Neither  are  old 
meadows  (mowing  lands  filled  Avith  the  natural  or  unculti- 
vated grasses,  or  whatever  of  useful  forage  they  choose  to 
bear),  exceptions  to  this  rule  ;  although  they  may  part  with 
a  portion  of  their  annual  crop  in  the  hay,  which  is  removed, 
and  which  is  not  returned  as  manure,  and  by  a  partial  rest 
or  pasturage,  appear  to  sustain  their  original  fertility.  But 
if  the  true  character  of  the  various  plants  which  they  pro- 
duce, were  accurately  observed,  aiid  all  of  which  are  indis- 
crimiiiately  embraced  under  the  general  head  of  grass  or 
hay,  it  would  be  found  that  the  plants  gradually  change 
from  year  to  year  ;  and  while  some  predominate  in  one 
season,  others  take  their  place  the  year  succeeding,  and 
these  again  are  supplanted  by  others  in  an  unceasing  round 
of  natural  rotation. 

Another  illustration  of  rotation  may  be  observed  in  the 
succession  of  forest  trees  that  shopt  up  on  the  same  soil,  to 
supply  the  jjlaces  of  such  of  their  predecessors  as  have  de- 
cayed or  been  cut  down.  Thus,  the  pine  and  other  of  the 
conifercB,  are  frequently  found  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  oak, 
chestnut,  and  other  deciduous  trees.  This  sometimes  occurs 
only  partially,  but  in  repeated  instances  which  have  come 
within  my  notice,  forests  have  been  observed  to  pass  entirely 
from  one  order  of  the  vegetable  creation  to  its  remote  oppo- 
site, the  seeds  or  germs  of  wiiieh  (tlie  product  of  an  ancient 
rotation),  had  been  lying  dormant  for  centuries,  perhaps, 
waiting  a  favorable  condition  of  circumstances  and  soil  to 
spring  into  life. 

Many  choice  secondary  bottom  lands,  and  others  munifi- 
cently supplied  by  -ature  with  all  the  materials  of  fertility, 
have,  by  a  long  succession  of  crops,  been  reduced  to  a  con- 
dition of  comparative  sterility.  Yet  it  "will  have  been  found 
in  the  progress  of  this  exhaustion,  that  after  the  soil  ceased 
to  give  an  adequate  return  of  one  crop,  as  of  wheat,  corn, 
or  tobacco,  it  would  still  yield  largely  of  some  other  genus 
which  was  adapted  to  it.  These  lands,  when  thus  reduced, 
and  turned  out  to  commons  for  a  few  years,  v/ill  again  give 
crops  much  larger  than  those  which  closed  their  former 
bearing    career,  proving   that  nature  has   been  silently  ai 


272  vMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

work  in  renovating  the  land  for  l  jrther  use.  The  whole 
sourse  of  her  operations  is  not  yet  known  ;  but  it  is  satis- 
factorily ascertained,  that  she  is  incessantly  engaged  in  pro- 
ducing those  changes  in  the  soil,  which  enable  it  to  eontri- 
bute  to  vegetable  sustenance.  Enough  of  lime,  or  potash, 
or  silica  may  have  been  disengaged  to  yield  all  that  may  be 
required  for  one  crop,  which  by  that  crop  is  principally 
taken  up,  and  if  another  of  the  same  kind  follows  in  quick 
succession,  there  will  be  a  deficiency  ;  yet  if  a  different  crop 
succeed,  there  may  be  found  enough  of  all  the  materials  it 
needs,  fully  to  mature  it.  A  third  now  takes  its  place,  de- 
manding materials  for  nutrition,  in  forms  and  proportions 
unlike  either  which  has  preceded  it,  and  by  the  time  a  re- 
currence to  the  first  is  necessary,  the  soil  may  be  in  a  con- 
dition again  to  yield  a  remunerating  return.  These  remarks 
apply  equally  to  such  soils  as  have,  and  such  as  have  not 
received  manures  ;  unless,  as  is  seldom  the  case,  an  accurate 
science  should  add  them  in  quantity  and  character  {specific 
manures),  fully  to  supply  the  exhaustion.  The  addition  or 
withholding  of  manures,  only  accelerates  or  retards  this 
effect. 

Another  prominent  advantage  of  rotation,  is  in  its  en- 
abling such  crops  to  have  the  benefit  of  manure,  as  cannot 
receive  it  without  hazard  or  injury  if  applied  directly  upon 
them.  Thus  wheat  and  the  other  white  grains,  are  liable 
to  overgrowth  of  straw,  rust,  and  mildew,  if  manured  with 
recent  dung ;  yet  this  is  applied  without  risk  to  corn,  roots 
and  most  of  the  hoed  crops  ;  and  when  tempered  by  one 
season's  exhaustion,  and  the  various  changes  and  combina- 
tions which  are  effected  in  the  soil,  it  safely  ministers  in 
profusion  to  all  the  wants  of  the  smaller  cereal  giains.  An 
additional  beuetit  of  rotation  is,  by  bringing  the  land  into 
hoed  crops  at  proper  intervals,  it  is  cleared  of  any  troublesome 
weeds  which  may  infest  it.  And  a  still  further  advantage 
may  be  found,  in  cutting  off  the  appropriate  food  of  insects 
and  worms,  which,  in  the  course  of  time,  by  having  a  full 
supply  of  their  necessary  aliment,  and  especially  if  undis- 
turbed in  their  haunts,  will  ofttimes  become  so  numerous 
as  seriously  to  interfere  with  the  labors  of  the  farmer.  A 
variation  of  the  crop,  exposure  of  the  insects  to  the  frosts,  and 
the  change  of  cultivation  which  a  rotation  insures,  will 
make  serious  iuroads  up:n  their  numbers,  if 't  does  not  ef- 
fectually destroy  them. 

The  noxious  excretio..s  of  plants,  a   fancilul   theory  firsi 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  273 

broached  and  ingeniously  defended  by  the  powerful  name  of 
Decandolle,  and  which  the  closest  scrutiny  of  scientific  ob* 
servers  since,  has  pronounced  unworthy  of  credit,  does  not 
form  another  reason  for  rotatioi  It  is  because  principles 
essential  to  successful  vegetation  have  been  abstracted,  not 
that  others  hurtful  to  it  have  beer  added  to  the  soil  by  pre- 
ceding crops,  which  renders  rotation  necessary. 

From  all  that  has  hitherto  been  learned  on  the  subject 
of  rotation,  either  from  science  or  practice,  two  general  prin- 
ciples may  be  assumed  as  proper  to  guide  every  farmer  in 
his  course  of  cropping.  First,  to  cultivate  as  great  a  variety 
of  plants  as  his  soil,  circumstances  and  market  will  justify  ; 
and  second,  to  have  the  same  or  any  similar  species  follow 
each  other  at  intervals  as  remote  as  may  be  consistent  with 
his  interests.  From  the  foregoing  observations  on  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  evident  that  tiie  proper  system  of  rotation  for 
any  farmer  to  adopt,  must  depend  on  all  the  conditions  by 
which  he  is  surrounded,  and  that  it  should  vary  according 
to  these  varying  circumstances. 

It  is  a  practice  with  some  to  alternate  wheat  and  clover, 
giving  only  one  year  to  the  former  and  one  or  two  years  to 
the  latter.  This  will  answer  for  a  longtime  on  soils  adapted 
to  each  crop,  provided  there  be  added  to  the  clover,  suah 
manures  as  contribute  to  its  own  growth,  and  such  also,  as 
are  exhausted  by  wheat.  The  saline  manures,  ashes,  lime, 
&c.,  may  be  added  directly  to  the  wheat  without  injury  ;  but 
gypsum  should  be  sown  upon  the  clover,  as  its  benefits  are 
scarcely  perceptible  on  wheat,  while  upon  clover,  they  are 
of  the  greatest  utility.  But  there  are  objections  to  this 
limited  variety,  as  it  does  not  allow  an  economical  or  advan- 
tageous use  of  barn-yard  manures,  which,  from  their  com- 
bining all  the  elements  of  fertility,  are  the  most  certain  in 
their  general  effect.  In  different  countries  of  Europe,  fields 
which  have  been  used  for  an  oft-recurring  clover  crop,  have 
become  clover-sick,  as  it  is  familiarly  termed.  The  plant  will 
not  grow  luxuriantly,  sometimes  refusing  to  vegetate,  or  if 
it  starts  upon  its  vegetable  existence,  it  does  so  apparently 
with  the  greatest  reluctance  and  suffering,  and  ekes  out  a 
puny,  thriftless  career,  unattended  with  a  single  advantage 
to  its  owner.  This  is  simply  the  result  of  the  exhaustion 
of  one  or  more  of  the  indispensable  elements  of  the  plant.  It 
it  be  desirable  to  pursue  this  two-course  system  for  any 
length  of  time,  nothing  short  of  the  application  of  all  such 
inorsanic  matters  ..i;  are  taken  up  by  the  crops,  will  sus' 
12* 


274  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

tain  the  land  in  a  fertile  condition.  I  subjoin,  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  illustration,  and  the  guidance  of  such  per- 
sons as  may  have  little  experience  in  rotation,  some  sys- 
tems which  have  been  pursued  with  advantage  in  this  country. 

1°.  On  a  grass  sod  broken  up,  with  a  heavy  dressing  of 
barn-yard  manure,  or  muck,  ashes,  and  lime  if  necessary. 
First  year,  corn  with  gypsum  scattered  over  the  plants  after 
the  first  hoeing,  which  should  be  done  immediately  upon  its 
making  its  appearance ;  second  year,  roots  with  manure  ; 
third  year,  wheat  if  adapted  to  the  soil,  with  guano ;  if^ot 
then  barley,  rye  or  oats,  with  grass  or  clover  seed  or  both  ; 
fourth  year,  meadow,  which  may  be  continued  at  pleasure,  or 
till  the  grass  or  clover  gives  way.  The  meadows  may  be 
followed  by  pasturing  if  desired.  Clover  alone  should  not 
remain  over  two  years  as  meadow,  but  for  pasture  it  maybe 
continued  longer. 

2°.  First  year,  corn  or  roots  on  a  grass  or  clover  ley  with 
manure ;  second,  oats  and  clover,  with  a  top  dressing  of  10  to 
20  bushels  of  crushed  bones  per  acre ;  third,  clover  pastured 
to  last  of  June,  then  grown  until  fully  matured  in  August, 
when  it  is  turned  over,  and  a  liglit  dressing  of  compost  and 
40  to  80  bushels  of  leached  ashes  spread  over  it,  and  wheat 
and  Timothy  seed  sown  about  loth  September.  If  desired, 
clover  is  sown  the  following  spring.  This  gives  for  the 
fourth  year,  wheat ;  fifth  and  sixth,  and  if  the  grass  continues 
good,  the  seventh  year  also,  meadow. 

3°.  First,  corn  on  a  grass  sod  heavily  manured,  and  a  half 
gill  of  ashes  and  gypsum  mixed  at  the  rate  of  two  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter,  and  put  in  the  hill,  and  a  less 
quantity  of  pure  gypsum  added  after  the  corn  is  first  hoed 
second,  oats  or  barley,  with  lime  at  the  rate  of  20  or  30 
bushels  per  acre,  sown  broadcast  after  the  oats  and  harrowed 
in  ;^third,  peas  or  beans,  removed  early,  and  afterwards  sown 
with  wheat ;  fourth,  wheat  with  a  light  top-dressing  of  com- 
post, guano  and  saline  manivres  in  the  spring,  and  clover,  or 
grass  and  clover  seed ;  fifth,  two  or  three  years  in  meadow 
and  pastiue. 

4°.  First,  wheat  on  a  grass  sod ;  second,  clover  ;  third, 
[ndian  corn,  heavily  manured ;  fourth,  barley  or  oats,  with 
grass  or  clover  seed  ;  fifth,  and  following,  grass  or  clover, 
with  guano. 

5°.  A  good  rotation  for  light,  sandy  lands,  is  first,  corn 
well  manured  and  cut  off  ^arly  and  removed  from  the  ground, 
which  i^im  nfidiately  so\'  i  with  rjc,  or  the  rye  hoed  in  be- 


FRUITS.  275 

tween  the  hills  s^  .^oncl,  rye  with  clovt/  sown  in  the  spring, 
and  gypsum  added  when  fairly  up ;  third,  clover  cut  for  hay. 
or  pastured,  the  latter  being  much  more  advantageous  for 
the  land. 

WEEDS. 

Whatever  plants  infest  the  farmer's  grounds,  and  are 
worthless  as  objects  of  cultivation,  are  embraced  under  the 
general  name  of  weeds.  In  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  all 
plants,  however  useful  they  may  be  as  distinct  or  separate  ob- 
je<7ts  of  attention,  when  scattered  through  a  crop  of  other 
useful  plants  to  their  manifest  detriment,  may  be  considered 
a-nd  treated  as  Aveeds.  Perfect  cultivation  consists,  in  having 
nothing  upon  the  ground  but  what  is  intended  for  the  benefit 
of  the  farmer  ;  and  it  implies  a  total  destruction  of  every  spe- 
cies of  vegetation,  which  does  not  contribute  directly  to  his 
advantage. 

In  China  and  some  parts  of  Flanders,  the  fields  are  en- 
tirely free  from  weeds.  This  is  the  result  of  long-continued, 
cleanly  cultivation,  by  which  every  weed  has  been  extirpa- 
ted ;  a  scrupulous  attention  to  the  purity  of  the  seed,  and 
the  sole  use  of  urine,  poitdrette  and  saline  manures.  This 
object  is  scarcely  attainable  in  this  country,  except  on  fields 
peculiarly  situated.  The  principal  causes  of  the  propagation 
of  Aveeds  among  us,  is  the  negligent  system  of  tillage  and 
the  use  of  unfermented  vegetable  manures.  By  heating  or 
decomposition,  all  the  seeds  incorporated  in  the  manure  heap 
are  destroyed.  Btit  there  is  a  great  loss  in  applying  manure 
thus  changed,  after  having  parted  with  large  portions  of  its 
active,  nutritive  gases,  unless  it  has  been  protected  by  a 
thick  covering  of  turf  or  vegetable  mold  during  the  progress 
of  fermentation.  For  many  soils  and  crops,  undecomposed 
manures  are  far  the  most  valuable.  But  they  should  always 
be  applied  to  the  hoed  crops,  and  such  as  will  receive  the  at- 
tention of  the  farmer  for  the  utter  extinction  of  ""/cods.  A 
single  weed  which  is  allowed  to  mature,  may  become  500 
the  following  year,  and  10,000  the  year  after. 

The  cleansing  of  land  from  weeds,  is  almost  the  sole  justi- 
fication for  naked  fallows.  When  a  large  crop  of  them  have 
by  any  means  obtained  possession  of  the  ground,  they  ought 
to  be  turned  into  the  soil  with  the  plow  before  ripening  their 
eeed,  and  they  thus  become  a  means .  of  enriching  rather 
than  of  impoverishing  the  ground.  Meadows  which  have 
become  foul  with  iiselegs  plants,  j  .g.y  be  turned  into  pasture; 


276  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

and  if  there  are  plants  which  cattle  and  horses  will  not  eat, 
let  them  first  crop  it  closely,  and  then  follow  with  sheep, 
whiah  are  much  more  indiscriminate  in  their  choice  of  food, 
and  consmne  many  plants  which  are  rejected  by  other 
animals.  Whatever  escapes  the  maw  of  sheep,  should 
be  extirpated  by  the  hand  oi  _oe  before  seeding.  The 
utmost  care  also,  should  be  used  in  the  selection  of  seed, 
and  none  sown  but  such  as  has  been  entirely  freed  from  any 
foreign  seeds. 

The  Canada  thistle  is  the  only  weed  which  has  taxed 
the  ingenuity  of  vigilant  farmers  in  effecting  its  removal. 
This  is,  however,  within  the  power  of  every  one,  ■who  will 
bestow  upon  it  a  watchful  attention  for  a  single  season. 
The  plant  should  be  allowed  to  attain  nearly  its  full  growth, 
or  till  it  comes  fully  into  flower,  when  it  has  drawn  largely 
itpon  the  vitality  of  its  roots.  If  the  bed  be  large,  the  plow 
should  be  used  to  turn  every  particle  of  the  plant  under  the 
surface,  and  let  the  hoe  or  spade  complete  what  has  escaped 
the  plow.  If  small  or  difficult  to  reach  with  the  plow,  use 
the  hoe  or  spade  to  cut  ofi'  the  crown  of  the  root ;  and  if  in 
blossom,  let  the  tops  be  burnt  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
any  of  the  seeds  ripening.  As  soon  as  the  tops  again  make 
their  appearance  above  ground,  repeat  the  plo^viug  or  spading. 
Continue  this  till  the  nnddle  of  autumn,  when  the  land  will 
be  free  from  them,  and  in  fine  condition  to  yield  a  crop  of 
wheat.  If  they  harbor  in  fences  or  walls,  these  should 
either  be  removed,  or  the  thistle  followed  to  its  roots,  and 
kept  constantly  cut  into  the  ground,  when  it  will  not  long 
survive. 

An  abundance  of  weeds  implies  negligence  of  cultivation 
and  generally,  a  deficiency  of  manures  is  equally  conspicu- 
ous. The  weeds  in  this  case  are  kindly  provided  by  nature, 
partially  to  sustain  a  fertility  which  could  not  otherwise  long 
subsist.  When  found  in  any  considerable  quantity,  plow 
them  in  before  the  seed  is  formed  ;  and  they  are  frequently 
equivalent  u'hen  thus  treated,  to  a  good  crop  of  clover  or 
other  dressing  of  green  manures. 

FIBROUS  COVEEING  OR  GURNEYISM 

Is  the  name  given  to  the  practice  (conspicuously  brought 
into  notice  recently  by  Mr.  Gurney  of  England)  of  cov^ering 
grass  lands  with  straw  or  any  similar  vegetable  matter.  It 
has  received  the  sanction  of  many  eminent  agriculturists 
abroad  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  every  improvement 


FRUITS.  an 

Before  Jtir  readeis  which  may  possibly  benefit  them,  I  sub- 
join tlie  followuio-  from  an  article  on  the  subject,  in  the 
Britisli  Farmer's  Magazine, 

"  The  fact  of  a  remarkable  increase  of  vegetation  from 
fibrous  covermg,  has  now  been  fully  confirmed  by  numerous 
and  careful  experiments.  In  every  instance  where  the  rela- 
tive quantities  of  grass  were  cut  and  weighed,  that  operated 
on  by  this  agency  showed  an  increase  of  six  to  one  over  that 
of  other  parts  of  the  fields  without  manure,  and  of  five  to  one 
above  that  where  guano,  farm-yard  manure,  wood  ashes,  or 
pigs'-house  dung  had  been  applied  against  it.  The  quantity 
of  hay  obtained  from  the  grass  was  in  the  same  ratio  ;  the 
mean  of  the  results  from  different  farms,  shows  that  a  ton  and 
a  half  was  obtained  where  Gurneyism  had  been  used,  and 
only  from  four  to  five  hundred  weight  where  it  had  not.  In 
many  cases  the  grass  was  so  slight  on  the  parts  of  the  fields 
not  covered,  that  it  could  with  difhculty  be  mowed,  and  in 
some  cases  was  considered  not  worth  cutting  at  all. 

The  question  of  quantity  is  indeed  settled.  The  next 
question,  its  comparative  goodness,  seems  also  determined. 
Mr.  Gurney,  at  former  meetings,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
the  quality  was  not  inferior  to  that  of  other  grass  ;  this 
opinion,  he  said,  was  founded  on  botanical  observation  and 
careful  chemical  analysis.  In  all  eases,  cattle  eat  this  grass 
as  readily  as  they  do  that  of  ordinary  production,  and  ap- 
pear to  do  as  well  on  it.  It  has  moreover  been  observed 
that  the  milk  and  cream  of  cows  fed  on  it  have  both  in- 
creased in  quantity  and  improved  in  quality. 

Another  \ery  interesting  and  important  fact  is  developed 
that  this  action  tends  to  improve  the  herbage,  by  favoring 
the  growth  of  the  more  valuable  kinds  of  plants  In 
almost  every  instance  it  has  very  much  increased  the  growth 
of  the  Dutch  clover.  In  Belgium,  and  many  parts  of  the 
midland  counties  of  England,  it  is  the  common  practice,  in 
order  to  destroy  the  couch  grass,  &e.,  to  manure  tAvice  on 
the  green  sod  with  active  compost.  The  result  of  this  prac- 
tice is  to  bring  up  the  more  valuable  grasses,  Avhich,  being 
delicate,  require  the  assistance  of  art  to  insure  their  vigor- 
ous growth.  The  same  results  follow  the  action  of  fibrous 
covering,  but  in  a  more  rapid  manner,  and  certainly  the 
quality  of  the  herbage  is  improved.  In  many  parts  of  fields 
where  the  action  had  been  induced,  a  beaiuiful  floor  of  grass 
now  appears  ;  while  on  those  parts  left  uncovered,  the  gi-ass 
is  very  inferior  'U  appearance,  having  a  considerable  qmr 


078  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

tity  of  30uch-gra5s  and  bent.  There  is  no  doubt,  Viierefore, 
that  the  quaUty  of  Gurneyized  gras.s  will  be  found  in  prac- 
tice equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  ordinary  growth. 

It  was  thought  that  the  action  of  fibrous  covering  wa.s 
occasioned  by  retarding  evaporation,  and  shading  the  soil 
during  the  unusually  dry  season.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case  ;  the  .same  proportional  increase  of  vegetation  has  gone 
on  since  the  wet  weather  set  in,  and  still  continues.  Mr. 
Gurney  stated  at  the  last  meeting  that  he  has  found  fibrous 
covering,  in  a  late  experiment  dMviug  the  Avet  weather,  had 
brought  up  the  eaver  and  clovei  in  a  barley  arish,  in  which 
the  seeds  had  failed  from  the  dry  season."  The  kind  of  soil, 
and  the  circumstances  attending  the  application  are  not 
stated,  but  I  infer  from  the  product  on  the  ground,  that  it 
was  a  very  thin  and  light,  and  probably  a  dry  soil. 

The  observation  has  been  frequently  made  in  this  country, 
that  many  half-cleared  pastures,  where  the  trees  and  brush 
had  been  prostrated  and  partially  burnt,  leaving  a  heavy 
covering  of  old  logs  and  dead  branches,  gave  a  much  larger 
supply  of  feed  than  such  as  had  been  entirely  cleared.  All 
the  facts  and  attending  circumstances,  however,  have  not 
been  given  with  suiiicient  particularity  to  draw  any  well- 
settled  conclusions  ;  yet  from  the  generality  of  the  remark 
by  observing  and  careful  men,  there  is  undoubtedly  some 
weight  due  to  it.  The  same  effect  has  been  often  claimed 
from  certain  stony  fields,  which  apparently  give  much  larger 
returns  than  others  from  wliich  the  stones  had  been  removed. 

If  the  results  are  as  have  been  inferred,  after  deducting- 
something  for  what  observation  or  science  may^  possibly  not 
yet  have  detected,  I  would  ascribe  them  to  two  causes.  1°. 
The  gradual  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  covering  or 
stone,  as  either  may  have  occupied  tljc  ground,  and  the  di- 
rect food  which  they  thus  yield  to  the  crop  ;  and  2"^.  the 
greater  and  more  prolonged  deposit  of  dew,  which  is  going 
forward  through  most  of  the  twenty-four  hours  of  every 
day  on  large  portions  of  the  field.  (Does  the  influence  of 
the  shade  and  moisture  promote  an  unusual  deposits  of  am- 
monia, nitric  acid,  or  any  of  the  fertilizing  gases?)  I  am 
inclined  to  think  nitric  acid  is  thus  formed  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  especially  where  there  is  an  appreciable 
quantity  of  lime  in  the  so^'l.  Both  M.  Longchamp,  and  Dr. 
John  Davy  assert,  '*  that  die  presence  of  azotized  matter  is 
not  essen' ial  for  the  generation  of  nitric  acid  or  nitrous  .salts, 
but  that  the  oxygen  and  azote  o.'  the  atmosphere  when  con- 


ELECTRO    CUtrVRE.  279 

j}*>nsed  by  capillarity,  will  cofnbine  in  such  proportions  as  to 
form  nitric  acid  through  the  agency  of  moisture  and  of  neu- 
tralizing bases,  such  as  lime,  magnesia,  potash  or  soda." — 
(  Urc).  The  condition  of  the  soil  is  precisely  analogous  to 
the  artificial  nitre  beds,  deducting  their  excess  of  manure 
and  calcareous  matter.  These  exist  to  some  extent  in  every 
soil,  and  it  is  probable,  i;nder  similar  circumstances  they  will 
produce  an  amount  of  nitric  acid  proportionate  to  their 
OAvn  qiaantity,  which  in  every  case  will  be  particularly  felt 
by  the  crops.  We  have  the  shade,  moisture,  and  capillary 
condition  similar  to  those  of  the  nitre  beds,  for  the  forma- 
tion and  condensing  of  the  acid,  ■which,  in  this  instance,  is 
washed  down  into  the  soil  by  every  successive  rain,  instead 
of  being  carefully  preserved,  where  formed,  as  is  done  by 
the  roofing  of  the  beds.  The  question  is  one  of  sufficient 
consequence  to  induce  further  trials,  imder  such  circumstan- 
ces as  will  be  likely  to  afford  data  for  estimating  the  precise 
force  or  influence  of  these  several  causes  and  conditions  of 
the  soil. 

ELECTRO  CULTTTEE. 

The  application  of  electricity  to  growing  plants  is  a  sub- 
ject which  has  occupied  the  attention  of  scientific  men  for 
many  years,  and  apparently  without  arriving  at  any  bene- 
ficial result.  That  it  is  capable  of  producing  unusually 
rapid  growth  when  applied  to  vegetation,  we  have  too 
many  examples  to  admit  of  any  doubt.  A  stream  of  elec 
tricity  from  a  galvanic  battery,  directed  upon  the  seeds  or 
roots  of  plants  under  a  favorable  condition,  has  sometimes 
produced  an  amount  of  vegetable  development  within  a 
few  hours,  which  Avould  have  required  as  many  days  or 
even  weeks  to  produce,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature. 
An  egg  has  been  hatched  in  one  fourth  the  usual  period  of 
incubation  ;  and  every  dairy  maid  is  aware  of  the  accel- 
erated change  in  the  milk,  from  the  presence  of  a  highly 
electrical  atmosphere.  A  thunder  storm  will  sour  milk  in 
two  hours,  that  Avould  otherwise  have  remained  unchanged 
fur  as  many  days.  B<  t  after  all  the  efforts  hitherto  made 
to  secure  this  agent  for  the  advancement  of  the  farmer's 
operations,  a  careful  review  of  the  entire  results  obtained, 
compels  us  to  acknowledge,  that  no  application  of  electricity 
is  yet  developed,  which  entitles  it  to  the  consideration  of 
practical  agricultiuists.  When  we  oonsider,  however,  the 
power  and  alraos    universal  present  •    and  agency  of  elen- 


280  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

tricity,  we  must  confess  our  confidence,  that  the  leseawLci) 
of  science  will  hereafter  detect  some  principles  of  its  opera- 
tion, which  may  be  of  immense  value  to  the  interests  oi 
agriculture. 

Electricity  is  probably  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  sole 
agent  in  producing  all  chemical  changes  in  inert  matter  ; 
nor  is  it  improbable,  its  agency  is  equally  paramount  in  the 
changes  of  vegetable,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also,  of  animal 
life.  Independent  of  human  agency  or  control,  it  forms 
nitric  acid  in  the  atmosphere  during  thunder  showers,  which 
is  brought  down  by  the  rain,  and  contributes  greatly  to  the 
growth  of  vegetables.  It  is  also  efficient  in  the  deposit  of 
dews,  and  in  numberless  unseen  ways,  it  silently  aids  in 
those  beneficent  results,  which  gladden  the  heart,  by  fulfil- 
ling the  hopes  of  the  careful  and  diligent  husbandman.  But 
until  something  is  more  definitely  established  in  relation  to 
its  principles  and  eff'ects,  the  prudent  agriculturist  may 
omit  any  atte)ition  to  the  subject  of  electro  culture. 

EXPERIMENTS  AMONG-  FARMERS. 

A  great  advantage  would  result  to  agriculture,  if  every 
intelligent  farmer  would  pursue  some  systematic  course  of 
experiments,  on  such  a  scale,  and  with  such  variety  as  his 
circumstances  justified,  and  give  the  results  if  successful,  to 
the  community.  It  is  with  experiments  in  farming,  as  was 
said  by  Franklin,  of  a  young  man's  owning  wild  lands  ;  "  it 
is  well  for  every  one  to  have  some,  if  he  don't  have  too 
manyy  They  should  be  his  servants,  not  his  masters  ;  and 
if  intelligently  managed  and  kept  within  due  bounds,  they 
may  be  made  to  subserve  his  own  interest,  and  by  their  pro- 
mulgation, eminently  promotive  of  the  general  good.  It  is 
fully  in  accordance  with  another  maxim  of  that  wise  head, 
that  when  it  is  not  within  our  power  to  return  a  favor  to 
our  benefactor,  it  is  our  duty  to  confer  one  on  the  first  ne- 
cessitous person  we  meet,  and  thus  the  circle  of  good  offices 
will  pass  round. 

The  mutual  communication  of  improvements  of  any  kind 
in  agriculture,  has  the  effect  of  benefiting  not  only  the  com- 
munity generally,  but  even  the  authors  themselves  ;  as  they 
frequently  elicit  corrections  and  modifications  which  mate 
rially  enhance  the  value  of  the  disco\'ery.  These  experi 
ments  should  embrace  the  whole  subject  of  American  agri- 
culture ;  soils  and  their  amelioration  ;  manures  of  every 
kind,  alkaline,  vegetable  and  pi;#:resceu;,  and  their  effects  oa 


THE  UTILITY   OF  BIRDS.  281 

iifFerent  soils  and  crops  ;  plants  of  ever-  -ariety,  and  theii 
daptat-on  to  different  soils,  under  different  circumstances, 
and  with  various  manures  ;  and  their  relations  to  each  other, 
both  as  successors  in  rotation,  their  value  for  conversion  into 
animals  and  other  forms,  and  their  comparative  ultimate 
profit  ;  the  production  of  new  varieties  by  hybridizing  and 
otherwise  ;  drainins,  both  surface  and  covered  ;  the  improve- 
ment of  implements  and  meclianical  operations,  &:c.,  &c. 
They  should  also  extend  to  the  impartial  and  thorough  trial 
of  the  different  breeds  of  all  domestic  animals,  making  ulti- 
mate profit  to  the  owner  the  sole  test  of  their  merits  ;  cross- 
ing them  in  different  ways,  and  under  such  general  rules 
as  experience  has  determined  as  proper  to  be  observed  y 
their  treatment,  food,  management,  &c.  Although  much 
has  been  accomplished  within  the  last  few  years,  the  science 
and  practice  of  agriculture  may  yet  be  considered  almost  in 
its  infancy.  There  is  an  unbounded  field  still  open  for  ex- 
ploration and  research,  in  which  the  efforts  of  persevering 
genius,  may  hereafter  discover  mines  of  immense  value  to 
the  human  family. 

THE  UTILITY  OF  BIRDS. 

These  are  among  the  most  useful  of  the  farmer's  aids,  in 
securing  his  crops  from  insect  depredations;  and  yet  manifest 
as  this  is  to  every  observing  man,  they  are  frequently  pursued 
and  hunted  from  the  premises  as  if  they  were  his  worst  ene- 
mies. The  martin,  the  swallow  and  the  wren,  which  may 
almost  be  considered  among  the  domestics  of  the  farm;  and 
the  sparrow,  tha  robin,  the  blue  bird,  the  wood-pecker,  the 
bob-a-link,  the  thrush,  the  oriole,  and  nearly  all  the  songsters 
of  the  field  accomplish  more  for  the  destruction  of  noxious 
flies,  worms  and  insects,  which  are  the  real  enemies  of  the 
farmer,  than  all  the  nostrums  ever  invented.  And  hence 
the  folly  of  that  absurd  custom  of  scare-crows  in  the  growing 
corn-fields  and  orchards,  to  which  I  have  before  alluded. 
The  chickens  and  ducks  do  the  farmer  more  benefit  than 
injury  in  the  garden  and  pleasure  grounds,  if  kept  out  of  the 
way  while  the  young  plants  are  coming  up.  A  troop  ol 
.young  turkeys  in  the  field,  will  destroy  their  weight  in  grass- 
hoppers every  three  days,  duringtheiryrevalence  in  summer 
or  auiumn.  A  pair  of  sparrows,  while  feeding  their  youug, 
consume  over  3,000  caterpillars  a  week.  One  hundred 
crows  devour  a  ton  and  a  half  of  grubs  and  ins3cts  in  a  season. 
Even  the  h?\"k  and  the  3wl,  the  objects  of  generil  aversion. 


282  AMERICAN    AGRICULTUKE. 

rid  the  fields  and  woods  of  innumerable  squir  els,  moles  and 
field  mice.  The  last  are  frequently  great  de_)redators  upon 
the  crops,  after  having  exhausted  the  stores  of  worms  aiad 
insects  which  they  first  invariably  devour,  and  to  this  ex- 
tent these  little  quadrupeds  are  tliemselves  benefactors.  The 
smaller  species  of  the  hawk  and  owl,  when  pressed  by 
hunger,  will  resort  to  grubs,  beetles,  crickets  and  grass- 
hoppers, in  the  absence  of  larger  game.  That  loathsome 
monster  the  bat,  in  its  hobgoblin  flight,  destroys  his  bulk  of 
flies  in  a  single  night.  Slight  injury  may  occasionally  be 
done  to  the  gniin  and  fruit  by  the  smaller  birds,  and  when 
thus  intrusive,  some  temporary  precaution  will  suffice  to 
prevent  much  loss.  But  whatever  loss  may  thus  occur,  the 
balance  of  benefit  to  the  farmer  from  their  presence,  is 
generally  in  their  favor ;  and  instead  of  driving  them  from 
his  grounds,  he  should  encourage  their  social,  chatty  visits  by 
kind  and  gentle  treatment,  and  by  providing  trees  and 
pleasant  shrubbery  for  their  accommodation. 

TOADS,  FROGS,  &c. 

Shakspeare  has  said,       ' 

The  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  its  head. 

Deducting  the  venom  we  shall  find  the  poet  right ;  for  we 
can  no  more  attempt  the  defence  of  his  beauty,  than  that  of 
the  muck  heap  ;  but  we  can  well  excuse  his  unprepossessing 
exterior,  for  the  sake  of  the  jewel  which  he  wears  in  his 
tongue.  This,  like  that  of  the  chamelion,  of  which  he  ;s  a 
cousin-gernian,  he  darts  out  with  lightning  rapidity,  and 
clasps  the  worm  or  insect  prey  within  its  glutinous  folds, 
which,  with  equal  rapidity,  is  transformed  to  his  capacious 
maw.  Apparently  dull,  squat,  and  of  the  soil's  hue,  what- 
ever that  may  be  ;  he  sits  quiet  and  meditative,  yet  watchful 
in  the  thick  shade  of  some  overgrown  cabbage  ;  and  as  the 
careless  insects  buzz  by,  or  the  grub  or  beetle  crawl  lazily 
along,  unheedful  of  danger,  he  loads  his  aldermanic  carcass 
with  the  savory  repast.  Sixteen  fresh  beetles,  a  pile  equal 
to  his  fasting  buUc,  have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  a 
sinijle  toad. 

The  frog,  traipsing  over  the  wet  fields,  amid  the  long 
grass  or  thick  weeds,  procures  his  summer  subsistence  in 
the  same  Avay  as  his  seeming  congener  ■'.he  toad,  and  with 
equal  benefit  to  the  farmer. 


FENCES.  283 

The  striped  snake  is  a  harmless  object  about  the  farm 
premises,  and  like  the  toad,  he  is  als;)  a  great  gormandiserot 
worms  and  insects.  The  sole  drawback  to  his  merits,  arises 
from  his  frequently  feasting  on  the  toad  and  frog.  The 
black  snake  is  sometimes  destructive  to  young  poultry, 
and  he  is  a  fierce  and  formidable  foe  to  all  whom  his 
couiage  induces  him  to  attack.  Jle  charms  the  old  birds 
and  robs  their  nests  both  of  eggs  and  young;  but  his  con- 
sumption of  superfluous  squirrels  and  field  mice,  perhajjs,  fully 
atones  for  his  OAvn  delinquencies. 

FENCES. 

In  many  countries  which  have  long  been  under  cultivation, 
with  a  dense  population  and  little  timber,  as  in  China  and 
other  parts  of  Asia,  Italy,  France,  Belgium,  Holland  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  fences  are  seldom  seen.  In  certain 
sections  of  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  New  England 
States,  a  similar  arrangement  prevails.  This  is  universally 
the  case  over  the  wide  intervals  or  bottom  lands  which 
skirt  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut  River,  where  periodical 
inundations  would  annually  sweep  them  away.  Wherever 
this  system  is  adopted,  cultivation  proceeds  without  obstruc- 
tion, and  a  §teat  saving  is  made  not  only  in  their  original 
cost,  but  in  the  interest,  repairs  and  renewal ;  all  the  land  is 
available  for  crops ;  no  weeds  or  bushes  are  permitted  to  hide 
their  annoying  roots  and  scatter  their  seeds  over  the  groimd  ; 
no  secure  harbors  are  made  for  mice,  rats  or  other  vermin; 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  keeping  up  bars  or  gates  are 
avoided  ;  and  a  free  course  is  allowed  by  the  conceded  roads 
or  by-paths,  for  the  removal  of  the  crops,  carrying  on  ma- 
mires,  and  the  necessary  passing  to  and  fro  in  their  cultiva- 
tion. These  are  important  advantages,  which  it  would  be 
well  for  every  community  to  consider,  and  secure  to  the  full 
extent  of  their  circumstances. 

The  inconveniences  of  this  arrangement  are  trifling. 
When  cattle  or  sheep  are  pastured  where  fences  are  wanting, 
they  are  placed  under  the  guidance  of  a  shepherd,  who  with 
the  aid  of  a  well-trained  dog,  will  keep  a  large  herd  of  ani- 
mals in  perfect  subjection  within  the  prescribed  limits.  In 
the  unfenced  parts  of  the  Connecticut  valley  (where  exten- 
sive legislative  powers  reside  in  the  separate  to\vns,  which 
enable?  each  to  adopt  such  regulations  as  best  comport  with 
the'.r  own  interests),  no  animals  are  permitted  to  go  upon 
the  "uifenc'jd  fields  till  autumn;  and  the  crops  are  requirefJ 


284  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

to  be  removed  at  a  designated  time,  when  each  occupant  is 
at  liberty  to  turn  upon  the  common  premises,  a  number  of 
cattle  proportionate  to  his  standing  forage,  which  is  accurate- 
ly ascertained  by  a  supervisory  board.  A  certain  number  of 
fences  are  necessary  for  such  fields  as  are  continued  in  pas- 
ture through  the  season,  but  unfortunately,  custom  in  this 
country  has  increased  them  beyond  all  necessity  or  reason. 
It  rests  with  the  farmers  to  abate  such  as  they  deem  con- 
sistent with  their  interests. 

The  kind  of  fences  required,  must  vary  according  to 
the  controlling  circumstances  of  the  farm.  In  those  situa 
tions  u'here  stone  abounds,  and  especially  if  it  is  a  nuisance, 
heavy  stone  fences  (broad  and  high)  are  undoubtedly  the 
most  proper.  AVhere  these  are  not  abundant,  an  economical 
fence  may  be  constructed,  by  a  substantial  foundation  of  stone, 
reaching  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  above  ground,  in 
Avhich  posts  are  placed  at  proper  distances,  with  two  or  three 
bar  holes  above  the  wall,  in  which  an  equal  number  of  rails 
are  inserted.  Post  and  rail,  and  post  and  board  fences  are 
common  where  there  is  not  a  redundancy  of  timber. 

The  posts  should  be  placed  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
feet  below  the  surface,  in  the  centre  of  a  large  hole  and  sur- 
rounded by  fine  stone,  which  must  be  well  pounded  down  by 
a  heavy,  iron-shod  rammer,  as  they  are  filled  in.  The  post 
v/ill  not  stand  as  firmly  at  first  as  if  surrounded  by  dirt,  but 
it  will  last  much  longer.  The  lower  end  should  be  pointed, 
which  prevents  its  heaving  with  the  frost.  If  the  position 
of  the  post  \vhi!e  in  the  tree  be  reversed,  or  the  upper  end 
of  the  split  section  of  the  trunk  which  is  used  for  a  post,  be 
placed  in  the  earth,  it  will  be  more  durable.  Charring  or 
partially  burning  the  part  of  the  post  which  is  buried,  will 
add  to  its  duration.  So  also  will  imbedding  it  in  ashes, 
lime,  charcoal  or  clay :  or  it  may  be  bored  at  the  surface 
with  a  large  auger,  diagonally  downwards  and  nearly 
through,  then  filled  with  salt,  and  closely  plugged. 

The  best  timber  for  j^osts  in  the  order  of  its  durability, 
is  red  cedar,  yellow  locust,  white  oak  and  chestnut,  for  the 
northern  and  middle  States.  I  recently  saw  red  cedar  posts 
in  use  for  a  porch  which,  I  was  assiired  had  been  standing  ex- 
posed to  the  weather  previous  to  the  Revolution,  a  period 
of  over  70  years,  and  they  were  still  perfectly  sound.  The 
avidity  with  which  silicio us  sands  and  gravel  act  upon  wood. 
renders  a  post  fence  expensive  for  such  soils. 

There  are   large  \x>rtions  of  our  country  where  timbex 


FENCES. 


285 


abounds,  especially  in  the  iincleared  parts  of  it,  where  the 
zig-zag  or  worm  fence  is  by  far  the  most  economical.  The 
timber  is  an  incumbrance  and  therefore  costs  nothing ;  and 
the  rails  can  be  cut  and  split  for  50  to  75  cents  per  100,  and 
the  hauling  and  placing  is  still  less.  With  good  rails,  well 
laid  up  from  the  ground  on  stones  or  durable  blocks,  and  pro- 
perly crossed  at  the  ends  and  locked  at  the  top,  these  fences 
are  firm  and  durable. 

Sfaki?i.g  the  corner^  by  projecting  rails  gives  an  unsightly 
appearance  at  all  times,  and  is  particularly  objectionable  for 
plowing,  as  it  considerably  increases  the  waste  ground. 
The  same  object  is  obtained  by  locking  the  fence  when  com- 
pleted, with  a  lona:  rail  on  each  side,  one  end  resting  on  the 
ground  and  the  other  laid  into  the  angle,  in  a  line  with  the 
fence.  More  symmetry  and  neatness  is  secured,  and  a  trifiino" 
amount  of  timber  saved,  by  putting  two  small  upright  stakes, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  angle,  and  securing  them  by  a  Avhite 
oak  plank,  six  inches  wide  by  eighteen  inches  long,  with 
holes  to  slip  over  the  posts,  after  most  or  all  of  the  rails 
have  been  laid.  Any  additional  ones  laid  over  this,  keep 
the  yokes  or  caps  in  their  place,  and  the  whole  is  thus  firmly 
bound  together.  Besides  the  timber  designated  for  posts, 
rails  may  be  made  from  any  kind  of  oak,  black  walnut,  black 
and  white  ash,  elm  and  hickory. 

Ttirf  and  clay  fences  have  been  tried  in  this  country 
\vithout  success.  The  frosts  and  rains  a)'e  so  severe  as  to 
break  and  crumble  them  down  continually.  Cattle  tread 
upon  and  gore  them ;  and  against  swine  and  sheep  they 
scarcely  offer  any  resistance. 

Wire  feyices  have  been  tried  successfulhj .  They  are 
Sja'le  with  a  greater  or  less  number  of  wires  and  of  sizes 


varying  from  No.  G  to  No.  12,  according  to  the  style 
of  building  and  the  purposes  to  be  answered.  If  wanted 
for  the  larger  animals,  the  wires  should  be  stronger,  and 


286 


AMERICAN       GRICULTURE. 


placed  higher;  if  for   the    lesser,    they  may  be  of  smaller 
wires,  run  nearer  together  and  closer  to  the  ground. 

Fig.  62  shows  one  of  the  plain  fences,  secured  by  iron  or 
wooden  posts,  as  may  be  preferred.  Fig.  63  is  a  Avire  fence, 
more  elegant  in  design,  but  much  niDre  expeusive.  In  this, 
the  upright  wires  are  secured  by  longitudinal  iron  bars.  It 
is  equally  efficient  with  the  former,  and  much  more  orna- 
mental, and  is  a  pretty  appendage  about  the  pleasure  grounds. 
The  wire  may  be  prepared  against  rust  from  the  elements, 
by  galvanizing,  or  they  may  be  painted  after  being  put  up. 


Fig.  63. 


Where  wood  abounds,  rails  may  perhaps,  make  the  most 
ecoijomical  fences.  But  where  there  is  a  deficiency,  wire  is 
undoubtedly  the  cheape;;t.  They  possess,  also,  the  further 
advantage  of  much  gro-.ter  durability;  and  the  facility  for 
removal,  at  little  trouble  or  expense  whenever  required. 

7"  hurdle  or  light  moveable  fence  is  variously  formed 
of  coitlage,  wire  or  wicker  work,  in  short  panels,  and 
firmly  set  in  the  ground  by  sharpened  stakes  at  the  end  of 
each  panel,  and  these  are  fastened  together.  This  is  a  con- 
venient addition  to  farms  where  heavy  green  crops  of 
clover,  lucern,  peas  or  turneps  are  required  to  be  fed  off  in 
successive  lots,  by  sheep,  swine  or  cattle. 

The  sunken  fence  or  wall  is  by  far  the  most  agreeable  to 
good  taste,  and  it  is  perfectly  efficient.  It  consists  of  a  ver- 
tical excavation  on  one  side,  about  five  feet  in  depth,  against 
which  a  wall  is  built  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
opposite  side  is  inclined  at  such  an  angle  as  "will  preserve 
the  sod  against  sliding,  from  the  effects  of  frost  or  rain,  and 
is  then  turfed  over.  A  farm  thus  divided,  presents  no 
obstruction  to  the  vicAV,  while  it  is  everywhere  properly 
walled  in,  besides  affording  good  ditches  for  the  drainage  of 
water.  These  sunken  fences  are  sometimes  raised  a  conple 
of  feet  above  the  ground,  which  increases  the  protection,  and 
at  a  less  cost  than  deepening  and  widening  the  ditch. 

Good  fences,  at  all  times  kept  in  perfect  repair,  are  the 
cheapest.      Most  of   the  unru.y   animals  are  taught  their 


HEDGES. 


287 


habits  through  the  neg.'.gence  of  their  owiisrs  Fences 
that  are  half  down  or  which  will  easily  fall  by  tl  e  rubbing 
of  cattle,  will  soon  teach  them  to  jump,  and  throw  down 
such  as  they  are  unable  *,o  overleap.  For  the  same  reason, 
gates  are  better  than  bars.  When  the  last  are  used,  they 
hould  be  let  down  so  near  the  ground  that  every  animal 
•an  stejD  over  conveniently  ;  nor  should  they  be  hurried  over 
;o  fast  as  to  induce  any  animal  to  jump.  In  driving  a  flock 
of  sheep  through  them,  the  lower  bars  ought  to  be  taken 
entirely  out,  or  they  be  allowed  to  go  over  the  bars  in  single 
file.  '  Animals  will  seldom  become  jumpers  except  through 
their  owner's  fault,  or  from  some  bad  example  set  them  by 
unruly  associates ;  and  iinless  the  fences  be  perfectly  secure, 
such  ought  to  be  stalled  till  they  can  be  disposed  of.  The 
farmer  will  find  that  no  animal  will  repay  him  the  trouble 
and  cost  of  expensive  fences  and  ruined  crops. 

HEDGES. 

These  have,  from  time  immemorial,  been  used  in  Great 
Britain  and  some  parts  of  the  European  continent,  but  are 
now  growing  unpopular  with  utilitarian  agriculturists. 
They  occupy  a  great  deal  of  ground,  and  harbor  much  ver- 
min. A  few  only  have  been  introduced  in  this  country,  and 
they  will  probably  never  become  favorites  among  us.  For 
those  disposed  to  try  them  as  a  matter  of  taste  or  fancy,  ] 
enumerate  as  best  suited  to  this  object,  the  English  haw- 
thorn, beautiful  and  hardy;  the  holly,  with  an  evergreen 
handsomely  variegated  with  yellow  spots,  and  armed  at  the 
edges  with  short  stiff  thorns  ;  the  gorse  or  furze,  a  prickly 
shrub  growing  to  the  height  of  five  feet  or  more  and  bearing 
a  yellow  blossom.  These  are  much  cultivated  in  Europe 
as  defences  against  the  inroads  of  animals ;  while  numerou3 
other  less  formidable  shrubs,  "ke  the  ivilloio  s.ndi  privet  are 
grown  for  protection  against  winds;  and  when  sufficiently 
large  and  strong,  they  aI?o  serve  for  cattle  enclosures. 


Buckthorn  Hedge   (Fig.  04). 

In  America  the   huckthorn  was  first  introduced  bv  Ml 


288  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

Derby,  of  Massachusetts,  and  by  him  was  considerably  dis- 
seminated through  the  United  States.  It  has  proved  a  hardy, 
thrifty  plant,  entirely  suited  to  the  purpose.  The  foregoing 
figure  shows  the  thorn  hedge,  which  is  imperv^ious  to  any 
intruder  when  properly  trained.  The  Osage  oraiige  grou's 
spontaneously  in  the  southwestern  States,  and  is  successfully 
cultivated  in  most  of  the  eastern  and  portions  of  the  north- 
ern. Its  rapid  growth  and  numerous,  thick,  tough  branches 
and  thorns,  render  it  an  effectual  protection  to  fields. 

The  Cherokee  rose,  for  the  southern  States,  is  by  many 
deemed  the  most  economical  and  efficient.  It  grows  with 
great  rapidity,  some  of  the  runners  reaching  forty  feet  or 
more,  and  it  is  hardy  and  enduring ;  but  it  occupies  much  room 
and  is  frequently  troublesome  about  the  fields  from  its  super- 
abundant growth.  The  wild  peach,  which  abounds  in  many 
of  the  southern  forests,  furnishes  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
hedges  when  tastefully  managed,  as  I  have  seen  it  in  Mis- 
sissippi. I  have  fenced  with  the  native  thorn  of  western 
New  York,  with  entire,  success.  The  MicJiigan  rose  and 
the  siveet  briar,  both  hardy  and  of  luxuriant  growth,  and 
some  other  species  of  the  native  rose,  have  been  tried  and 
proved  efficient.  The  crab  apple  and  icild  plum,  with 
their  thick,  tough  branches  and  formidable  thorns  (especially 
the  latter),  with  proper  vr-.5.ining;  will  be  found  a  perfect  stop- 
page against  animals  ol'  all  kinds.  The  yellow  locust  and 
acacia  have  been  sometimes  used  ;  and  the  wild  laurel,  an 
evergreen  of  great  beauty  at  all  times,  and  especially  so  with 
.*s  magnificent  blossoms,  would  form  a  beautiful  hedge 
wherever  the  soil  will  give  it  luxuriant  growth.  There  are 
a  variety  of  other  trees  and  shrubs  of  native  growth,  which 
may  be  employed  for  hedges;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  spe- 
cify them,  as  each  can  best  select  for  himself  such  as  are 
suited  to  his  own  peculiar  soil  and  circumstances. 

SHADE  TREES. 

In  such  situations  and  numbers  as  may  be  required  around 
the  farm  premises,  these  are  both  ornamental  and  profitable. 
They  have,  too,  a  social  and  moral  influence,  far  beyond  the 
mere  gratification  of  the  eye  en*  the  consideration  of  dollars 
and  cents.  In  their  freshness  and  simplicity,  they  impress 
the  young  mind  with  sentiments  of  purity  and  loveliness  as 
enduring  as  life.  From  the  cradle  of  infancy,  consciousness 
first  dawns  upon  the  beauty  of  nature  beneath  their  grateful 
.shade ;  the  more   boisterous  sports  of  childhood  seek  their 


SHAKE    TREES.  289 

keenest  enjoyment  amid  their  expanding  foliage  ;  and  they 
become  the  favorite  trysting  place  when  the  feelings  assume 
a  graver  hue,  and  the  sentiments  of  approaching  manhood 
usurp  the  place  of  unthinking  frolic.  Their  memory  io 
after  life  greets  the  lonely  ^vande^er  amid  his  trials  and  vicis- 
situdes, inciting  him  to  breast  adversity  till  again  welcomed 
to  their  smiling  presence.  Their  thousand  associations 
repress  the  unhallowed  aspirations  of  ambition  and  vice; 
and  when  the  last  sim  of  decrepid  age  is  sinking  to  its  rest, 
these  venerable  monitors  solace  the  expiring  soul  with  the 
assurance,  that  a  returning  spring  shall  renew  its  existence 
beyond  the  winter  of  the  tomb. 

Trees  ought  not  to  be  too  near  the  buildings,  but  occupy 
such  a  position  as  to  give  beauty  and  finish  to  the  landscape 
In  addition  to  danger  from  lightning,  blowing  down,  or  the 
breaking  olT  of  heavy  branches,  there  is  an  excessive  damp- 
ness from  their  proximity,  which  produces  rapid  decay  in 
such  as  are  of  vi^ood,  besides  its  frequently  affecting  to  a 
serious  degree  the  health  of  the  inmates.  Low  shrubbery 
that  does  not  cluster  too  thickly,  or  immediately  around  the 
house,  is  not  objectionable.  Trees  are  ornamental  to  the 
streets  and  highways,  but  should  be  at  such  a  distance  from 
the  fences,  as  will  prevent  injury  to  the  crops  and  afford  a 
kindly  shade  to  the  wayfarer.  In  certain  sections  of  the 
middle  and  southern  States,  where  the  soil  is  parched  from 
the  long  sultry  summers,  it  has  been  found  that  shade  trees 
rather  increases  than  diminishes  the  forage  of  the  pastures  ; 
out  through  most  of  the  middle  and  northern  States,  they 
are  decidedly  disadvantageous,  as  the  feed  is  found  to  be 
sweeter  and  more  abundant  beyond  their  reach.  For  this 
reason,  such  trees  as  are  preserved  exclusively  for  timber 
should  be  kept  together  in  the  wood-lots,  and  even  many 
that  are  designed  for  necessary  shade  or  ornament,  may  be 
grouped  in  tasteful  copses,  with  greater  economy  of  ground 
and  manifest  improvement  to  the  landscape.  In  the  selec- 
tion of  trees,  regard  should  be  had  not  only  to  the  beauty  of 
the  tree  and  its  fitness  for  shade,  but  to  its  ultimate  value 
ds  timber  and  fuel. 

In  the  range  of  selection,  no  flora  of  either  hemisphere 
will  compare  with  the  number,  variety,  and  beauty  of  our 
North  American  forest  trees.  Of  the  oak,  we  have  50 
species,  while  all  Europe  has  but  30,  Europe  has  14  species 
of  pines  and  firs  ;  Asia,  19  ;  Africa,  South  America,  and 
13 


290 


AMERICAN    AGKICOLTtTRE. 


Polynesia — each,  two  ;  Australia,  one  ;  wh  /le  North  Amer- 
ica has  40,  and  the  United  States  alone  over  20. 

The  Oak,  of  which  Fig.  65  affords  a  spier,  did  specimen,  is 
one  of  the  most  maguificent,  as  it  is 
one  of  the  longest-lived  of  the  forest 
tribes.  It  'S  to  be  regretted  that  many 
of  the  specios  are  so  slow  of  groAvth, 
that  they  seldom  tempt  their  cultiva- 
tion by  the  utilitarian  of  this  country, 
who  looks  only  to  the  speedy  enjoy- 
ment of  his  labor.  Many  of  those 
which  have  descended  to  us  from  pre- 
ceding generations,  combine  much  of  the  beauty,  and  all  of 
the  grandeur  we  can  expect  in  a  shade  tree. 

The  Black  Oak  (Fig.  66),  on  soil  adapted   to  it,  is  a  tree 
-r  ^,  of  commandina;  beauty  and  stalwart  growth. 

The  foliage  appears  late,  but  is  unsurpassed 
for  depth  and  richness  of  color,  and  highly- 
polislied  surface  ;  and  it  retains  its  summer 
green,  long  after  the  early  frosts  have  mot- 
tled the  ash,  and  streaked  the  maple  with 
?s%  their  rainbow  hues.  When  grown  on  dry 
°"  ■-' "  and  open  land,  both  fuel  and  timber  are 
firm,  compact  and  lasting. 

(Figs.  67   and  68),  of  which  two  speci- 
.. '/  -  mens   ^are     o-iven,    jrrows 


The  Pin  Oak 


lCT' 


rapidly  and  with  great 
beauty,  when  transplanted 
into  an  open  space.  It  af- 
fords a  timber  of  great 
strength  and  excellence. 
Some  others  of  our  nor- 
'.hern  oaks  yield  a  fine 
.  hade,    and    good    timber 


and  fuel  when  grown  in  open  grounds. 

The  Live  Oak  (Fig.  69)  often  flourishes   as  far  as  35' 


.^^ 


^M^ 


north  ;  but  is  not  found  in  perfection  north  of 
ls.,^i^    Louisiana.     It  grows  rapidly,  and  assumes  a 
^  great  variety  of  shapes  in  its  earlier  growth, 
%^  but  most   frequently  appears  as  in  Fig.  69 
Sometimes,  though  rarely,  il  branches  stiffly 
upwards    like   the   ash ;   occasionally    t    is 
seen  dipping  its  long,  drooping  boughs  into 
the  water,  some  feet  belcw  the  surface  of 
Pio.«9.  the   bank  which   supports   its   roots;    and 


SHADE  TREES.  291 

more  often  it  imitates  the  maple.  B  it  it  most  frequently 
tlirows  its  branches  out  abruptly,  and  nearly  at  right  angler 
witli  the  trunk,  like  the  apple  ;  or  gracefully  arches  upward 
till  the  flexile  twigs  descend  from  the  outer  extremity,  form- 
ing a  beautiful  and  usually  flattened  dome,  Avith  a  diameter 
sometimes  exceeding  150  feet.  It  renews  its  foliage  gen- 
erally once  in  tAvo  years,  and  then  gradually,  thus  always 
affording  a  dense  niass  of  living  green.  Many  other  species 
of  evergreen  oaks,  which  never  grow  nortii  of  about  37° 
within  the  States,  do  not  vary  materially  in  appearance  or 
character  from  the  live  oak.  For  ship-building,  the  live 
oak   is  esteemed   the    strongest  and  most  durable  timber. 

TJie  Elm  when  standing  isolated,  is  one  of  our  most  beau- 
tiful and  imposing  trees.  It  grows  to  an  immense  size,  with 
gracefully  projecting  limbs  and  long  pendant  branches.  It 
is  liable  to  few  diseases,  and  the  fuel  and  timber  are  good 
for  most  purposes.  Every  one  who  has  seen  the  patriar- 
chal elms  Avhich  grace  the  beautiful  villages  of  the  Connec- 
ticiit  valley,  and  other  old  towns  of  New  England,  must 
wish  to  see   them  universally  disseminated. 

The  Rock  or  Sugar  Majyle,  before   mentioned  on  page 

,-s..,.  219,  (Fig.  70),  lias  a  straight  trunk  and  reg- 

vilar  upward-branching  limbs,  forming  a  top 

,-~  of  great  symmetry  and  elegance.      Besides 

•.     the  ornament  and  thick  shade  it   affords,  it 

gives  an   annual  return  in  its  sap,  v/hich  is 

converted  into  syrup  and  sugar.    The  fuel  is 

not  inferior  to  any  of  our  native   trees,  the 

timber    is  valuable,  yielding   the    beautiful 

glossy  bird's  eye  maple  so  much  esteemed 

for  furniture,  and  various  other  purposes. 

The  Black  Walnut  (Fig.  71)  is  a  stately,  graceful  tree 
yielding  excellent  wood  and  durable 
timber  ;  and  besides  its  extensive  use  for 
plain,  susbtantial  furniture,  the  knots 
and  crotches  make  the  ricn,  dark  veneer- 
ing, which  rivals  the  mahogany  or  rose 
wood  in  brilliancy  and  lasting  beauty. 
In  a  fertile  soil,  where  only  it  is  found  in 
its  native  state,  it  bears  a  rich,  highly 
flavored  nut. 

The  While  Ash  has  a  more  slender  and  stiffer  top  than 
either  of  the  preceding,  yet  is  light  and  graceful.  The  fuel 
is  good,  and  the  timber  unequalleu  in  value  for  the  carriage 
maker. 


892  AyERICAX    AGE-ICrLTCRE. 

There  are  two  species  of  willow  usually  cu.tivated  zb 
shade  trees.  The  White  Wiliovc  (Fig. 
72,  "vrhich  is  rather  a  superannuated  spe- 
cimen) generally  occupies  a  lov/,  moist 
situation,  on  the  brink  of  some  rivulet  or 
stream  It  is  nearly  valueless  except 
in  the  shade  it  affords.  The  bright 
orange  twigs  and  branches  furnish  an 
unfaili-ig  supply  of  primitive  whistles  for 
the  youngsters  in  the  spring.  The 
Weeping  Willow  is  a  tree  of  variegated  foliage,  and  long 
flexile  twigs,  sometimes  trailing  the  ground  for  yards  in 
lengih.  Its  soft,  silver}-  leaves  are  among  the  earliest  of 
spring,  and  the  last  to  maintain  their  verdure  in  autunm. 
But  its  wood  is  of  little  value. 

The  Locust  (Fig.  73)  is  a  beautiful  tree,  of  rapid  growth, 
flowering  profusely,  with  its  layers  or  massive 
flakes  of  innumerable  leaflets  of  ihe  deepest 
verdure.  The  wood  is  unrivalled  for  durabili- 
'  ty  as  ship  timber,  except  by  the  live-oak  ;  and 
for  jxjsts  or  exposure  to  the  weather,  it  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  the  savin  or  red  cedar.  It  has 
■"f  late  years,  been  subject  to  severe  attacks  and 
Fig.  73.  great  injury  from  the  borer,  a  ■tvorm  against 
whose  ravages  hitherto,  there  has  been  no  successful  remedy. 
The  Button-icood,  Sycamore,  Plane-tree  or  Water-beach, 
by  all  of  which  names  it  is  kno^vn  in  different  parts  of  this 
coimtry,  is  of  gigantic  dimensions  when  occupying  a  rich  and 
moist,  alluvial  soil.  One  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio 
measured  47  feet  in  circumference,  at  a  height  of  four  feet 
from  the  ground.  Its  lofty  mottled  trunk,  its  huge  irregular 
limbs,  and  its  numerous  pendant  bails  (in  which  are  com- 
pressed myriads  of  seeds  with  their  plumy  tufts,  that  are 
wafted  to  immense  distances  for  propagation),  have  ren- 
dered it  occasionally  a  favorite.  They  are  often  seen  on 
the  banks  of  our  rivers,  almost  constituting  a  hedge  ;  and 
sometimes  they  completely  span  streams  of  considerable 
size.  The  wood  is  cross-grained,  and  intractable  for  work- 
ing, and  the  timber  is  of  little  use  except  for  fuel. 

The  Magnolia  {Mag)iolia  grandijlora)  is  a  splendid  south- 
ern evergreen,  with  a  beautiful  fir  or  cone- like  top,  bearing 
leaves  greatly  increased  in  size  and  thickness  beyond  those  ol 
the  evergreen  oaks,  and  of  equally  deep,  perennial  verdure. 
Among  these,  the  arge  snow  v.-hite  blossoms,  six  or  seven 
":n.ches  in  diamete.   and  of  great  fragrance,  spangle.in leisure- 


SHADE  TREES. 


293 


Fig. 


Fio.  76. 


ly  succession,  the  whole  circumference,  during  mDst  of  the 
*"*li        months  of  May  and  June,     Its  timber  is  soft, 
but  useful  for  some  purposes.  • 

The  Pecan  (Fig.  74)  is  a  deciduous,  nut- 
bearing  tree,  of  the  wahiut  tribe,  and  grows  in 
the  same  latitudes  as  the  live-oak  and  maonolia. 
It  is  much  taller  than  either,  and  somewhat 
resembles  in  its  growth  the  rock  maple  of 
the  North.  The  nuts  are  of  considerable  value 
as  an  article  of  food  and  export. 
The  Paper  Mulbernj  (Fig.  75)  is  a  handsome  shade 
'-*"•■  tree.      It    is    a    native    of    Japan,    and 

was    introduced    into     this    country    in 
1784.     Its  wood  and  timber  are  of  little 
value ;  but  great   merit  is   claimed  for  its 
leaves  as  forage  for  cattle  ;  for  its  .sap  as  a 
substitute  for  glue ;  and  for  its  bark   as  a 
material  for  both  cloth  and  paper.     It  is 
hardy  enough  for  any  part  of  the  United 
States,  south  of  42=". 
TAe  Lomhardy  Poplar  (Fig.  76)  is  too  well  known   to 
need  description.     It  is  strictly  a  foreigner, 
as  its  name  imports,  and  was  introducecf  into 
this  country  only  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,   to   any    extent.      For   many 
years  it  was  popular,  and  being   of  rapid 
growth  and   easily  propagated   by  twigs  of 
cuttings,  it  was  soon  disseminated  through 
the  country.     Being  short-lived,  many  of  the 
earUest  trees  have   long  since  died ;  and  a 
judicious  taste  has  nearly  exterminated  the 
remainder.     It  has  a  prim,    grenadier-like 
stiffnefis  ;  but  their  double  files,  which  some- 
times line  the  country  reads,  add  a  pleasant 
feature  to  the  distant   landscape.     Its  wood   and  timber  are 
alniost  worthless,  being  light,  porous  and  unsubstantial. 
The   Tulip   Tree  (Fig.  77)  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful 
.,^S^^  native  shade    trees.     It  abounds  on  this 

•:'    "~    '  \        continent,  south  of  latitute  43",  and  a  little 
;.'  ,^      distance  from  the  Atlantic  coast.     It  grows 

lofty  and  large,  with  a  symmetrical  top, 
of  great  beauty.  It  has  a  smooth 
polished  trunk  when  young,  which  never 
becomes  very  rough  a:  jagged  by  age.  It 
bears  a   profusion  of  delicate,  greenish 


294 


AMERICAN    AGRICwLTURE. 


colored,  ."learly  inodorous  flowers,  as  large  and  not  unlike  the 
outline  of  the  cotton  blossom.  Its  timber  is  light  and  soft, 
but  useful  for  .'nany  purposes. 

The  Ailaxtus  (A.  glandulosa,  Fig.  78)  has  not  been  ex- 
tensively reared  in  t  le  United  States,  till 
within  the  last  few  years.  1:  is  hardy,  and 
grows  rapidly  in  latitude  42°,  and  south 
of  it,  throwing  out  its  long,  pinnated, 
sumach-like  leaf,  from  20  to  70  inches  in 
length.  It  forms  a  pleasant  shade  imme- 
diately after  transplanting,  and  will  (con- 
tinue to  grow  rapidly  and  with  great  beau- 
ty till  it  attains  a  height  of  50  to  70  feet. 
Some  even  exceed  this  size.  The  Chinese,  from  whom  we 
get  it,  give  to  it  the  imposing  name  of  the  Tree  oj  Hea- 
ven. Its  wood  i«  hard  and  compact,  and  of  a  deep,  reddish 
color.  It  will  receive  some  polish,  and  retains  a  slight  lus- 
tre, sufficient  to  justify  its  use  for  cabinet  work. 

TJic  Ev.ropean   Larch   as  shov.^n  in  fig.  79,  is  of  many 
varieties,  and  is  sometimes  used  in  this  country 
as  a  shade  tree.     For   this  object,   the  Recl- 
conecl  and    Weeping  varieties  are    esteemed 
the    most    ornamental.      There   are     several 
other  varieties  indigenous  to  America,  close- 
ly resembling  the  former  in  all  their  peculiari- 
ties.    They  are  more  generally  known  in  this 
country  as  the  Hackmatack   or    Tamarack. 
Fig.  ;y.         They  are  partial  to  moist  or  swampy  and  cold 
soils.     The  timber  is  among  the  strongest  and  most  durable. 
They  sometimes  grow  to  the  height  of  80  or  100  feet,  and  two 
to  three  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Fig.  80)  endeared  to  the  memo- 
ry of  youth  by  a  thousand  incidents  of 
biblical  and  profane  history,  is  a  tree  of 
large  size,  and  peculiar  in  its  Avidely- 
outspreading  branches.  It  is  frequently 
vised  as  a  shade  tree  in  Europe,  but  sel- 
dom in  this  country.  The  great  value 
of  its  timber  may  be  inferred,  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  almost  exclusively  used 
in  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  whose  costly  ma- 
terials and  elaborate  finish  has  never  been  equalled  before  or 
eince.  There  is  one  specimen  growing  at  Throg's  Neck, 
N.  Y.,  two  fee/,  in  diameter,  that  produces  an  abundance  of 
cones  annually,  from  which  other  trees  can  be  grown. 


WOODLATTDS. 


995 


Fio.  81. 


Tk9  Hemlock,  (Fig.  81),  is  a  native  of  all  the  middle  and 
northern  States.  It  is  an  evergreen,  slightly 
resinous ;  and  when  growing  in  an  open  spacp, 
has  a  beautifully  symmetrical  top.  It  affords 
a  dense  and  agreeable  shade  from  its  innumer- 
able leaflets.  As  fuel,  it  is  better  than  the 
white  pines,  but  inferior  to  the  resinous  or  pitch 
pines,  and  for  timber  or  lumber  it  is  inferior  to 
either  for  most  purposes. 

The  Balm  of  Gilcad  (Fig.  82)  is  a  native 
of  this  continent,  and  abounds  in  low,  moist  situ 
ations,  among  a  great  variety  of  other  species  ol 
the  fir  tribe.  It  grows  well  Avlien  transplanted 
to  open  ground,  where  it  is  sufficiently  moist,  and 
sustains  a  handsome,  pyramidal  top,  of  deep  ver 
dure.  When  young  and  thrifty,  it  has  a  thick 
foliage,  but  becomes  thin  and  unsightly  when 
old  ;  before  which  period,  it  should  be  removed 
from  the  ornamental  grounds. 

Tloe  Long-leaved  Pine  (Fig.   83)  frequently 
known  as  Georgia  2Jitch  j^inc,  grows  in  great 
abundance     from    Virginia    to     the    Gulf    of 
Mexico.     Immense  quantities  of  pitch  are  an- 
nually   gathered    from  the    original    forests, 
through  the  southern  States  ;  but   the  princi- 
pal product  is  derived   from  North  Carolina. 
Over  800,000  barrels  have  been  exported  from 
that  State  in  a  year,  worth  nearly  $2,000,000. 
Fio.  83.         When  early  transplanted  into  open  grounds,  it 
forms  a  fine  shade  tree.     While  young,  the   tufts  of  leaves 
are  very  long,  bushy  and  graceful. 

The  White  Pine  of  the  North  is  also  a  beautiful  shade 
tree,  when  not  too  old.  The  foliage  of  all  the  pines  and  resin- 
ous trees,  becomes  thin  and  scraggy  as  they  advance  beyond 
middle  aire. 


WOOD  LANDS. 

There  are  few  farms  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is  not 
convenient  and  profitable  to  have  one  or  more  wood  lots  at- 
tached. They  supply  the  owner  with  his  fuel,  which  he 
can  prepare  at;  his  leisure;  they  furnish  him  with  timber  for 
buildings,  rails,r;posts  and  for  his  occasional  demands  for  im- 
plem'^uts;  they  require  little  attention,  and  if  well  managed, 
will  yield  more  or  less  forage  for  cattle  and  sheep.     The 


896  AMI-aiCAN    AGRICULTURE 

trees  should  be  kept  in  a  vigorous,  growing  condition,  as  the 
profits  are  as  much  enhanced  from  this  cause  as  any  of  the 
cultivated  crops. 

Few  American  fields  require  planting  ^vith  forest  trees. 
The  soil  is  everywhere  adapted  to  their  growth,  and  being 
full  of  seeds  and  roots,  when  not  too  long  under  cultivation, 
it  needs  but  to  be  left  unoccupied  for  a  time,  and  they  will 
everywhere  spring  up  spontaneously.  Even  the  oak  open- 
ings of  the  West,  with  here  and  there  a  scattered  tree,  and 
such  of  the  prairies  as  border  upon  woodlands,  when  rescued 
from  the  destructive  effects  of  the  annual  fires,  will  rapidly 
shoot  up  into  vigorous  forests.  I  have  repeatedly  seen  in- 
stances of  the  re-covering  of  oak  barrens  and  prairies  with 
young  forests,  which  was  undoubtedly  their  condition  be- 
fore the  Indians  subjected  them  to  conflagration  ;  and  they 
have  indeed,  always  maintained  their  foothold  against  these 
desolating  fires,  wherever  there  was  moisture  enough  in  the 
soil  to  arrest  their  progress. 

In  almost  every  instance,  if  the  germs  of  forest  vegetation 
have  not  been  extinguished  in  the  soil,  the  Avood-lot  may  be 
safely  left  to  self-propagation,  as  it  will  be  certain  to  produce 
those  trees  which  are  best  suited  to  the  present  state  of  the 
soil.  Slightly  thinning  the  young  wood  may  in  some  cases 
be  desirable,  and  especially  by  the  removal  of  such  Avorth- 
less  shrubbery  as  never  attains  a  size  or  character  to  render 
it  of  any  value.  Such  are  the  alders,  the  blue-beach  and 
swamp-willow ;  and  where  there  is  a  redundance  of  the  bet- 
ter varieties  of  equal  vigor,  those  may  be  removed  that  will 
be  worth  the  least  when  matured.  In  most  woodlands, 
however,  nature  is  left  to  assert  her  own  unaided  preferences, 
growing  what  and  how  she  pleases,  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed she  is  seldom  at  variance  with  the  owner's  interest. 
Serious  and  permanent  injury  has  often  followed  close 
thinning. 

In  cutting  over  woodlands,  it  is  generally  best  to  remove 
all  the  large  trees  on  the  premises  at  the  same  time.  This 
admits  a  fresh  growth  on  an  equal  footing,  and  allows  that 
variety  to  get  the  ascendancy  to  which  the  soil  is  best  suited. 
En  older  settled  States,  where  land  and  its  productions  are 
comparatively  high,  many  adopt  the  plan  of  clearing  oflf 
everything,  even  burning  the  old  logs  and  brush,  and  then 
SOAV  one  or  more  crops  of  wlieat  or  rye,  for  which  the  land 
IS  in  admirable  condition,  from  the  long  accumulation  of 
vegetable  matter  and  the  heavy  dressing  of  ashes  thus  rt> 


WOODLANDS.  Z97 

reived.  They  then  allow  the  forest  to  esume  its  origina 
claims,  which  it  is  not  slow  to  do,  from  the  abundance  of 
seeds  and  roots  in  the  ground.  Bvit  unless  the  crop  be 
valuable,  the  utility  of  this  practice  is  doubtful ;  as  by  the 
destruction  of  all  the  young  stuff  which  may  be  left,  there  is 
a  certain  delay  of  some  years  in  the  after  growth  of  the 
wood  ;  and  the  gradual  decay  of  the  old  trunks  and  brush, 
may  minister  fully  as  much  to  its  growth  as  the  ash  which 
their  combustion  leaves  ;  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  di- 
minished just  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter abstracted  by  the  grain  crops  which  may  have  been  taken 
off. 

Tlie  proper  time  for  cutting  over  the  wood  must  depend 
on  its  character,  the  soil,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied.  For  saw-logs  or  frame-timber,  it  should  have  a 
thrifty  growth  of  40  or  50  years ;  but  in  the  mean  time, 
much  scattering  fuel  may  be  taken  from  it,  and  occasionally 
such  mature  timber  trees  as  can  be  removed  without  injury 
to  the  remainder.  For  fuel  alone,  a  much  earlier  cutting  has 
been  found  most  profitable.  The  Salisbury  Iron  Company 
has  several  thousand  acres  of  land,  which  have  been  reserved 
exclusively  for  supplying  their  own  charcoal.  The  intelli- 
gent manager  informed  me,  that  from  an  experience  of  sixty 
years,  they  had  ascertained  the  most  profitable  period  for  cut- 
ting, was  once  in  about  sixteen  years,  when  everything  was 
removed  of  a  proper  size,  and  the  wood  was  left  entirely  to 
itself  for  renewed  growth.  It  has  been  found  that  this 
yielded  a  full  equivalent  to  an  annual  interest  on  $16  to  $20 
an  acre,  which  for  a  rough  and  rather  indiff'erent  soil,  remote 
from  a  wood  or  timber  market,  will  pay  fully  as  much  as  the 
netl  profits  on  cultivated  land  in  the  same  neighborhoQj^^ 

The  wood  should  be  kept  entirely  free  from  sheep-^nd 
cattle,  when  young,  as  they  feed  upon  the  fresh  shoots  with 
nearly  the  same  avidity  as  they  do  upon  grass  or  clover  ; 
and  when  it  is  desirable  to  thicken  the  standing  trees  by  ap 
additional  growth,  cattle  should  be  kept  from  the  range  til! 
such  time  as  the  new  sprouts  or  seedlings  may  have  attained 
a  height  beyond  their  reach.  When  it  is  necessary  to  bi-ing 
into  woodland  such  fields  as  have  not  forest  roots  or  seeds 
already  deposited  in  a  condition  for  germination,  the  fields 
should  be  sown  or  planted  with  all  the  different  nuts  or  seeds 
adapted  to  the  soil,  and  which  it  is  advantageous  to  culti- 
vatje. 

Transplanting  trees  for  a  forest  in  this  coimtry,  cannot  al 
13* 


'<SV6  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE, 

present  be  made  to  pay,  from  its  large  expense  ;  and  if  the 
trees  will  not  glow  naturally  or  by  sowing,  the  land  should 
be  continued  in  pastures  or  cultivation.  There  are  some 
lands  so  unfitted  for  tillage  by  their  roughness  or  texture, 
as  to  be  much  more  profitable  as  woodland.  It  is  better  to 
retain  such  in  fores'^  and  make  from  them  whatever  they 
can  thus  produce,  rather  than  by  clearing  and  bringing 
them  into  use,  to  add  them  to  superfluous  tillage  fields,  and 
become  a  drain  on  labor  and  manures  which  they  indiffer- 
ently repay. 

In  clearing  lands,  when  it  is  desirable  to  reserve  trees  for 
a  park  or  shade,  a  selection  should  be  made  of  such  as  are 
young  and  healthy,  which  have  grown  in  the  most  open 
places,  Avith  a  short  stem  ^nd  thick  top.  It  will  tend  to  in- 
sure their  continued  and  vigorous  growth,  if  the  top  and 
leading  branches  be  sh  >rtened.  Large  trees  will  seldom 
thrive  when  subjected  to  the  neu^  condition  in  which  they 
are  placed,  after  the  removal  of  the  shade  and  moisture  by 
which  they  have  been  sun'ounded.  They  will  generally 
remain  stationary  or  soon  decay  ;  and  the  slight  foothold 
they  have  upon  the  earth  by  their  roots,  which  was  suffi- 
cient for  their  protected  situation  while  surrounded  by  other 
trees,  exposes  them  to  destruction  from  violent  gales ;  and 
they  do  not  acquire  or  attain  that  beauty  of  top  and  .symme- 
try of  appearance  which  should  entitle  them  to  preservation. 
If  partiahties  are  to  be  indulged  for  any,  they  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  copse  ofyoimger  trees,  by  which  they  will  be 
in  a  measure  protected.  Young  stocks  should  be  left  in 
numbers  greater  than  are  required,  as  many  of  them  will 
die,  and  from  the  remainder,  selections  can  be  made  of  such 
as  Avill  best  answer  the  purpose  designed. 

THE  PROPER  TIME  FOR  CUTTING  TIMBER. 

Nine  tenths  of  the  community  think  winter  the  time  for 
this  purpose,  but  the  reason  assigned  that  the  sap  is  then  in 
the  roots,  shows  its  futility,  as  it  is  evident  to  the  most  su- 
perficial observer,  that  there  is  nearly  the  same  quantity  of 
sap  in  the  tree  at  all  seasox^s.  It  is  less  active  in  winter, 
and  like  all  other  moisture,  is  congealed  during  the  coldest 
weather  ;  yet  when  not  absolutely  frozen,  circulation  is 
never  entirely  stopped  in  the  living  tree.  Reason  would 
seem  to  indicate,  that  the  period  of  the  maturity  of  the  leaf, 
or  from  the  las'  of  June  to  the  first  of  November,  is  the  sea- 
sen  for  cutting  ','mber   in  its  perfeyion.     Certain  it  is,  that 


PARilINO   TOOLS.  299 

W'e  have  numerous  examples  of  the  timber  cut  within  this 
period,  which  has  exhibited  a  lurabiUty  twice  or  three  times 
as  great  as  that  cut  in  winter  when  placed  under  precisely 
the  same  circumstances.  After  it  is  felled,  it  should  at  once 
be  peeled,  drawn  from  the  woods,  and  elevated  from  the 
ground  to  facilitate  drying  ;  and  if  it  is  intended  to  be  used 
under  cover,  the  sooner  it  is  pr.t  there  the  better.  Wood 
designed  for  fuel,  will  spend  much  better  when  cut  within 
the  same  periods,  ana  immediately  housed ;  but  as  this  is 
generally  inconvenient,  from  the  labor  of  the  farm  being  then 
required  for  the  harvesting  of  the  crops,  it  may  be  more 
economical  to  cut  it  whenever  there  is  most  leisure. 

Preservation  of  timber. — Various  preparations  of  late 
years, have  been  tried  for  the  more  elfectual  preservation  of 
timber,  which  have  proved  quite  succea»?ful,  but  the  expense 
precludes  their  adoption  for  general  purposes.  These  are 
kyanizing,  or  the  use  of  carburetted  azote  (the  base  of  prus- 
sic  acid) ;  a  solution  of  common  salt ;  the  use  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  (a  bi-chloride  of  mercury) ;  pyrolignite  of  iron, 
formed  from  ii'on  dissolved  in  pyroligneous  acid,  which  is 
produced  from  the  distillation  of  wood,  or  from  the  condensed 
vapor  that  escapes  from  wood  fuel  while  burning,  and  which 
may  be  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  a  coal  pit  where 
charcoal  is  made.  These  will  be  absorbed  by  the  sap  pores 
and  universally  disseminated  through  the  body  of  the  tree, 
by  sawing  or  cutting  the  trunk  partially  off  while  erect,  and 
applying  the  solution  to  its  base  ;  or  it  may  be  cut  down, 
leaving  a  part  of  the  leafy  branches  above  the  point  of  satu- 
ration, and  apply  the  solution  to  the  butt  end.  The  leaves 
will  continue  to  sustain  the  natural  flow  of  the  sap,  which 
is  both  upward  and  downward,  by  the  different  conduits  or 
sap  vessels,  thus  distributing  the  artificial  solution  through- 
out the  trunk. 

Beautiful  tints  are  given  to  timber  which  is  used  for  cabi- 
net work,  by  saturating  it  with  various  coloring  matters. 
Although  the  expense  of  these  preparations  may  prevent  their 
nise  for  large,  cheap  structures,  yet  for  all  the  lighter  imple- 
ments such  as  wagons,  plows,  and  tools  generally,  where  the 
cost  of  the  wood  is  inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  that 
of  making,  it  would  be  economy  to  use  such  timber  only  as 
will  give  the  longest  duration,  thougli  its  first  price  may  be 
ten-fold  that  of  the  more  perishable  material. 

FARMING-  TOOLS. 

Tlvjse  sliould  fffrm  an  important  item  pi'  the  farmer's  ftt> 


300  AMERICAN    AGR  '.  JLTTJRE. 

tention,  as  upon  their  p'-oper  construction  depends  much  of 
the  economy  and  success  with  which  he  can  perform  his 
operations.  There  have  been  great  and  important  improve- 
menis  within  the  past  few  years,  in  most  implements,  which 
have  diminished  the  expense,  while  they  have  greatly  im- 
proved the  mechanical  operations  of  agricultm-e.  I  have 
studiously  avoided  a  reference  to  any  of  these,  as  there  are 
many  competitors  for  similar  and  about  equally  meritorious 
improvements  ;  and  in  this  career  of  sharp  and  commenda- 
ble rivalry,  what  is  the  best  to-day,  may  be  supplanted  by 
something  superior  to-morrow.  These  implements  may  now 
be  found  at  the  agricultural  warehouses,  of  almost  every 
desirable  variety.  Of  these,  the  best  only  should  be  pro- 
cured ;  such  as  are  the  most  perfect  in  their  principles  and 
of  the  most  durable  materials.  Cover  the  wood  work  with 
paint  or  oil,  if  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  the  iron  or 
steel  with  paint,  or  a  coating  of  hot  tar,  unless  kept  bright- 
ened by  use.  When  required  for  cutting,  they  should  al- 
ways be  sharp,  even  to  the  hoe,  the  spade  and  the  share  and 
coulter  of  the  plow.  When  not  in  use,  keep  them  in  a  dry 
place.  Plows,  harrows,  carts  and  sleds  should  all  be  thus 
protected,  and  by  their  longer  durability  they  will  amply 
repay  the  expense  of  shed  room.  They  ought  also  to  be 
kept  in  the  best  repair,  which  may  be  done  at  leisure  times, 
so  as  always  to  be  ready  for  use.  [Some  additional  remarks 
on  this  subject  Avill  be  found  under  the  head  of  plows.] 

THE  AGRICULTCTRAL  EDUCATION  OF  THE  FARMER. 

Though  last  mentioned,  this  is  the  first  in  importance  to 
the  farmer's  success.  It  should  commence  with  the  thor- 
ouo-h,  groundwork  attainments  everywhere  to  be  acquired 
in  our  primary  schools  ;  and  it  should  embrace  an  elemen- 
tary knowledge  of  mechanics,  botany,  entomology,  chemistry 
and  geology,  nor  can  it  be  complete  without  some  acquain- 
tance with  anatomy  and  physiology.  The  learner  ought 
then  to  have  a  complete,  practical  understanding  of  the 
manual  operations  of  the  farm  ;  the  best  manner  of  planting, 
cultivating  and  securing  crops  ;  he  should  be  familiar  with 
the  proper  management,  feeding  and  breeding  of  animals  ; 
the  treatment  of  soils,  the  application  of  manures,  and  all 
the  best  practices  and  most  approved  principles  connected 
vith  agriculture.  This  v/ill  be  but  the  commencement  of 
ihe  farmer's  educa/ion,  and  it  should  be  steadily  pursued 
..(ronorh  the  remainder  of  his  life. 


AORlCrLTtTRAr,   EDUCATION,  3U} 

He  muse  hIso  learn  from  his  own  experience,  which  is  the 
most  certain  and  complete  knowledge  he  can  obtain,  as  he 
is  thus  aware  of  all  the  circumstances  which  have  led  to 
certain  results ;  and  he  should  also  learn  from  the  experi- 
ence of  his  neighbors,  and  from  his  personal  observation  on 
every  subject  that  comes  Avithin  his  notice.  He  will  be 
particularly  assisted  by  the  agricultural  journals  of  the 
present  day,  which  embrace  the  latest  experience  of  some 
of  our  best  farmers,  throughout  remote  sections  of  country, 
on  almost  every  subject  pertaining  to  his  occupation.  To 
these  should  be  added,  the  selection  of  standard,  reliable 
works  on  the  various  topics  of  farming,  and  of  the  latest 
authorities,  which  can  be  procured  for  direction  and  refer- 
ence. 

Agricultural  colleges  and  schools  should  be  added  to 
this  list  of  aids  to  farming,  where  experienced  and 
gifted  minds  could  be  placed,  surrounded  by  every  means 
for  conveying  instruction  in  the  fullest,  yet  most  simple 
and  effective  manner,  and  with  every  requisite  for  practical 
ilh^stration.  It  can  hardly  admit  of  a  doubt,  that  this 
neglected  field  will  soon  be  efficiently  occupied,  and  thus 
supply  the  only  link  wanting  to  the  thorough  education 
of  the  farmer. 


502 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER    XIJl 


FARM    BUILDINGS 


Great  neglect  is  manifest  iii  this  country,  in  the  erection 
of  suitable  farm  buildings.  The  deficiency  extends  not  only 
to  their  number,  which  is  often  inadequate  to  the  wants  of 
the  farm,  but  more  frequently  to  their  location,  arrangement 
and  manner  of  construction.  The  annual  losses  which  oc- 
cur in  consequence  of  this  neglect  would,  in  a  few  years, 
furnish  every  farm  in  the  Union  with  barns  and  out-houses 
fully  adequate  to  the  necessary  demands  for  both.  I  will 
give  briefly  in  detail,  the  leading  considerations  which  should 
govern  the  farmer  in  their  construction. 

THE  FARM  HOUSE. 

If  this  is  required  for  the^occupation  of  the  owner,  it  may 


Fig.  84. 

be  of  any  form  and  .size  his  means  and  taste  dictate.  If  for 
a  tenant,  and  to  be  employed  solely  with  a  reference  to  it? 
value  to  the  farm,  it  should  be  r.eat,  comfortable  and  of  cor' 


FARM   BUILDINGS. 


303 


renieiit  size.     It  should  especially  contain  a  cool,  airy  and 


■  fio.  95 

spacious  dairy  room,  entirely  free  from  access  by  any  foul 
air  from  any  direction  ;  unless  the  owner  prefers  one  inde- 
pendent of  the  house,  over  a  clear 
spring  or  cool  rivulet,  where,  par- 
tially protected  from  the  sun  by  a 
sheltering  bank,  half  buried  in  the 
earth,  and  made,  as  it  shoi;ld  be,  cf 
stone,  the  cool  atmosphere  within 
will  afford  the  best  safeguard  against 
[flies  and  other  insects,  and  preserve 
Pj^  g^  '  the  butter  and   cheese   in  the   finest 

condition. 

Stone  or  brick  are  the  best  materials  for  dwellings,  as 
they  are  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter ;  and  if 
comlbrt  be  the  object  of  the  farmer's  toil,  there  is  certainly 
no  place  where  it  should  be  sooner  cor.sulted  or  more  amply 
provided  for,  than  in  his  own  home.     A.  naked,  scorching 


304 


AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 


exposure,  equally  with  a  bleak  and  dreary  one  is  to  be 
avoided.  The  design  of  a  house  is  protection  to  its  iiunates, 
and  if  there  be  no  adequate  shelter  from  the  elements,  it 
fails  in  its  purpose.  It  should  be  tastefully  birlt,  as  this  need 
not  materially  increase  the  expense,  while  it  aids  a  pleasant 
feature  to  the  farm       It  ouiiiit  to  occupy  a  position  easily 


FiG.  88. 

accessible  to  the  other  buildings  and  the  fields,  and  yet  be 
within  convenient  distance  of  the  highway.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  it  so  far  removed  as  to  admit  of  a  light  screen  of 
trees,  and  nature  will  thtis  add  an  ornament  and  protection 
in  the  surrounding  foliage,  which  no  skill  of  the  architect 
can  equal. 


Note.  Per  entg  84.  8.V  s;  in<i  91.  the  author  is  indebted  to  A   J.  Downing,  Cu 


FARM    BUILDINGS. 


306 


Fig.  84  is  a  plain  house,  occupying  an  elevated  position, 
with  a  slignt  drapery  of  trees  and  shrubbery  attached. 

Fig.  85  is  the  same  house  and  grounds  as  the  former,  with 
the  house  altered  to  conform  to  the  Orne  or  Gothic  style, 
which  has  recently  come  into  vogue. 

"^igs.  86  and  87  are  plain  but  neat  and  pretty   cottages, 


in    appearance,    are  seen 


Pig.  90. 

many   of  which,  nearly   similar 
throughout  the  country. 

Figs.  88  and  89,  of  the  Orne  style,  are  of  about  equal  pre- 


Fio.  91. 

tensions  and  cost. 

Fig.  90  is  a  more  imposing  countrv  cottage,  in  the 
(xrecian  style  ;  and  fig.  91,  a  pretty  ]odse,  or  tasteful  cotao-e 
for  a  Sinn;!  family.  '  ° 


306  AMERICA!!    %ORlCULTrRE. 


THE  CELLAR. 

This  is  an  essential  appendage  to  a  house,  particularly 
wbere  :oots  are  to  be  stored.  Many  appropriate  a  part  of  it 
to  the  iairy,  and  if  thus  employed,  it  should  be  high,  clean 
and  well  ventilated,  and  wholly  free  from  all  earthy  smell 
or  odor  of  any  kind.  The  proper  preservation  of  what  is 
contained  in  it,  and  the  health  of  the  inmates,  demand  a 
suitable  dryness  and  free  circulation  of  air.  The  cellar  is 
frequently  placed  on  -he  side  of  a  hill,  which  renders  it  more 
accessible  from  w^ithcat.  This  is  in  no  respect  objectionable, 
if  the  walls  are  made  sufficiently  tight  to  exclude  the  frosts. 
When  on  level  ground,  it  should  be  sunk  only  three  or  four 
feet  below  the  natural  surface,  and  the  walls  raised  high 
enousli  to  give  all  the  room  wanted ;  and  the  excavated  earth 
can  be  banked  around  the  house,  thus  rendering  it  more  ele- 
vated and  pleasant.  It  also  provides  for  the  admission  of 
light  and  air  through  small  windows,  which  are  placed  above 
ground.  A  wire  gauze  to  exclude  flies,  ought  to  occupy  the 
place  of  the  glass  in  warm  weather,  and  if  liable  to  frosts, 
there  should  be  double  sashes  in  winter. 

Ventilation  is  important  at  all  times,  and  it  may  be  se- 
cured even  in  winter,  by  a  large  aperture  connected  with  the 
chimney.  This  may  be  increased  in  mild  weather  or  during 
the  warmer  part  of  the  day,  by  throwing  open  the  windows. 
The  cellar  should  be  connected  with  the  kitchen  or  sheds 
above,  by  safe,  well-lighted  stairs  ;  and  the  entire  building 
should  be  rat-proof.  This  is  easily  accomplished.  A\'hen 
erectinii"  a  building,  the  carpenter  and  mason,  for  less  than 
the  additional  expense  of  a  year's  support  for  a  troop  of  rats, 
can  forever  exclude  them  from  it,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little 
ingenuity  and  trouble.  A  brick  floor  in  a  cellar  is  easily 
broken  up  by  these  insidious,  ever-busy  vermin ;  and  a  plank 
or  wooden  floor  is  objectionable,  from  its  speedy  decay. 
The  most  effective  and  permanent  barrier  to  their  inroads,  is 
afforded  by  a  stone  pavement,  laid  with  large  pieces  in  ce- 
ment, closely  fitted  to  each  other  and  to  the  side  walls.  This 
is  also  secured  by  placing  a  bed  of  small  stones  and  pebbles 
on  the  ground  and  grouting,  or  pouring  over  it  a  mortar 
made  of  lime  and  sand,  so  thin  as  to  run  freely  between  the 
stones.  When  dry,  a  t^light  coating  of  water-iime  cement  is 
added,  which  is  smoothed  over  with  the  trowel.  This  can 
be  so  laid  as  to  admit  of  ready  and  perfect  drainage,  by  a 
Jepressica  ia  the  centre  or  sides,  which  answers  for  gutters. 


FARM    BUILDINGS. 


THE  BAEN 


307 


Is  the  most  important  addition  to  the  farm.  Its  size  and 
form  and  manner  of  construction  nnist  depend  on  the  situa- 
tion, the  means  of  the  owner,  and  the  purposes  for  which  it 
is  designed.  It  is  sometimes  essential  to  have  more  than 
one  on  the  premises,  but  in  either  case,  they  should  be  within 
convenient  distance  of  the  house.  They  ought  to  be  large 
enou'vh  to  hold  ail  the  fodder  and  animals  on  the  farm. 
Not  a  hoof  about  the  premises,  should  be  required  to  brave 
our  northern  winters,  unsheltered  by  a  tight  roof  and  a  dry 
bed.  They  will  thrive  so  much  faster  and  consume  so  much 
less  food  w'hen  thus  protected,  that  the  owner  will  be  ten- 
fold remunerated  for  the  expense  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  object.  Disease  is  thus  often  prevented,  and  it"  it  oc- 
curs, is  more  easily  removed.  The  saving  in  fodder  by  pla- 
cino-  it  at  once  under  cover  when  cured,  is  another  great 
item  of  consideration.  Besides  the  expense  of  stacking  and 
fencing,  the  waste  of  the  exposed  hay  in  small  stacks,  is 
frequently  one  fourth  of  the  whole,  and  if  carelessly  done,  it 
will  be  much  greater.  There  is  the  further  expense  of 
again  moving  it  to  the  barn,  or  foddering  it  in  the  field 
which  greatly  increases  the  waste. 

It  is  a  convenient  mode,  to  jMace  a  barn  on  a  side  hill  in- 
clining to  the  south-east,  whenever  the  position  of  the 
ground  admits  of  it.  There  are  several  advantages  con- 
nected with  this  plan.  E.oom  is  obtained  by  excavation  and 
underpinning,  more  cheaply  than  in  the  building.  An 
extensive  range  of  stabling  may  be  made  below,  which  will 
be  warmer  than  that  atforded  by  a  wooden  building,  and  the 
mano-ers  are  easily  supplied  with  the  fodder  stored  above. 
Cellar  room  can  be  made  next  to  the  bank,  in  which  all  the 
roots  required  for  the  cattle  can  be  safely  stored,  in  front  of 
their  mangers,  and  where  they  are  easily  deposited  from 
carts,  through  windows  arranged  on  the  upper  side,  or  scut- 
tles in  the  barn-floor  above.  More  room  is  afforded  for  hay, 
in  consequence  of  placing  some  of  the  stables  below,  and  in 
this  way  a  large  part  of  the  labor  of  pitching  it  upon  ele- 
vated scaffolds  is  avoided.  The  barn  and  sheds  ought  to 
be  well  raised  on  good  underpinnings,  to  prevent  the  rotting 
of  sills,  and  to  allow  the  free  escape  of  moisture,  as  low%  damp 
premise-  are  injurious  to  the  health  of  animals. 

Fig.  92  is  a  barn  placed  on  a  side  hill,  which  is  a  type  of 
tnJ»nv  v^e  see  throughout  the  northern  States.     The  under' 


S08 


AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 


ground  space  itiay  be  used  either  as  a  stercorary  (a  place 
for  housing  manures),  or  as  stables  for  the   cattle  or  sheep 


But  one  side  of  the  floor  is  used  for  stabling,  and  the  re 
mainder  is  devoted  to  the  storage  of  hay,  grain,  roots,  o 
other  cattle  food  ;  or  it  may  be  employed  for  storing  wagons 
plows,  and  other  farm  implements.  Earns  of  this  style  art 
among  the  most  convenient  of  the  farm  buildings. 

Fi"^.  100  is  an  end,  and  Fig.  101,  a  side  view  of  an  im 
niense  barn,  capable  of  holding  100  tons  of  hay,  and  IOC 
head  of  cattle  and  voung  stock 


FARM  e-j:ldings.  309 

Fig   102  is  a  ground  plan  of  the  same  building,  with  two 


Fig.  100. 


Fig.  lOl. 


sheds  attached  at  each  end  ;  a,  main  floor ;  b,  b,  mows  for 
etoring  hay  ;  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  stables  ;  d,  d,  d,  d,  passage  ways  ; 


rt      (ft 

n     n 

L                                                                                      1 

■>« 

ft. 

o< 

& 

O- 

o. 

;'"'     "> 

;> 

X 

<4 

rk       (% 

ex, 

w 

ft. 

o. 

1                                                                            1 

n 

Fig.  102. 

e,  e,  e,  e,  e.  e,  mangers  for  feeding  ;  g,  g,  g,  g,  g,  doors. 
This  gives  a  large  amount  of  room  for  the  animals,  forage, 
grain,  or  implements,  in  a  small  compass. 

Fig.  103  is  an  enclosed  shed,  suitable  for  cattle  when  the 
weather  is  not  too  cold,  and  if  boarded  more  closely,  Avould 
at  all  times  afford  desirable  accommodations  for  sheep.     It 


310 


AMERICAN    AGR:0ULTURE. 


is  not  unlike  many  southern  barns  ;    though  these  are  mere 
frequently  made  much  wider,  with  the  centre  enclos  td  for 


holding  the  grain  and  fodder.  The  roofs  projecting  far  out 
on  either  side,  furnish  shelter  for  the  mules,  horses  and  oxen. 
Saving  all  the  mam/re  is  one  of  the  most  important 
considerations  in  the  arrangement  of  the  barns,  sheds  and 
yards.  The  stables  should  have  drains,  that  will  carry  off 
the  liquid  evacuations  to  a  muck-heap  or  tank,  and  whatever 
manure  is  thrown  out,  should  be  carefully  protected.  The 
manure  contains  the  future  crops  of  the  farmer,  and  unless 
he  is  willing  to  forego  the  latter,  he  must  carefully  husband 
the  former.  A  low  roof,  projecting  several  feet  over  the  ma- 
nure which  is  thrown  from  the  stables,  will  do  much  to 
prevent  waste  from  sun  and  rains.  The  eaves  must  be 
supplied  with  tight  troughs  to  carry  off  the  water,  which 
may  all  be  saved  for  the  use  of  the  stock,  by  leading  it  into 
tight  cisterns  or  reservoirs. 

The  mangers  ought  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  econo- 
mize the  fodder.  Box-feeding  for  cattle,  I  prefer,  as  in 
addition  to  hay,  roots  and  meal  may  be  fed  in  them  without 
loss ;  and  v.'ith  over-ripe  hay,  a  great  deal  of  seed  may  in 
this  -way  be  saved,  which  will  diminish  the  quantity  neces- 
sary to  be  purchased  for  sowing.  The  fine  leaves  and  small 
fragments  of  hay  are  thus  kept  from  waste,  which  in  racks, 
are  generally  lost  by  falling  on  the  floor.  Racks  are  objec- 
tionable, unless  provided  with  a  shalloAV  box  underneath, 
and  they  are  especially  to  be  avoided  in  foddering  in  the 
open  yards.  There  is  a  loss  in  dragging  the  forage  to  them  ; 
and  too  often  this  is  done  near  a  herd  of  hungry  catt)e,  thai 
gore  each  other,  and  are  scarcely  to  be  kept  at  bay  by  the 


FARM    BUILinNOS.  311 

3se  of  the  sLontest  goad.  There  is  also  a  waste  of  the  hay 
;hat.  falls  while  the  cattle  are  feeding,  and  this  is  largely 
increased  in  muddy  yards ;  -^dded  to  which,  the  animals  are 
exposed  to  whatever  bad  weather  there  may  be  while 
eating,  which  is  at  all  times  to  be  deprecated. 

SHEDS. 

Feeding  in  sheds  is  far  better,  and  in  many  instances  may 
tak':'  the  place  of  the  stall  or  stable.  They  are  frequently 
and  very  properly  arranged  on  two  sides  of  the  cattle  yard, 
ihe  barn  forming  a  third,  and  the  fourth  opening  to  the  south, 
unless  this  is  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds.  This  ar- 
rangement forms  a  good  protection  for  the  cattle  ;  and  con- 
necting the  sheds  with  the  barn  is  of  importance  in  econo- 
mizing the  labor  in  foddering.  The  racks  or  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  boarded  side  of  the  shed,  which  forms  the 
outer  side  of  the  yard,  and  they  are  filled  from  the  floor  over- 
head. If  the  space  above  is  not  sufficient  to  contain  the 
necessary  quantity  of  fodder,  it  may  be  taken  from  the  mows 
or  scaffolds  of  the  barn,  and  carried  or  dragged  over  the 
floor  to  the  place  wanted.  The  floors  ought  to  be  perfectly 
tight  to  avoid  waste,  and  the  sifting  of  the  particles  of  hay 
or  seed  on  the  cattle  and  sheep. 

Unless  the  ground  under  the  shed  be  quite  dry,  it  is  better 
to  plank  it,  and  it  will  then  admit  of  cleaning  with  the  same 
facility  as  the  stables.  A  portion  of  the  shed  may  be  par- 
-  titioned  off  for  close  or  open  stalls,  for  colts,  calves  or  infirm 
cattle,  and  cows  or  ewes  that  are  heavy  with  young.  A 
little  attention  of  this  kind,  will  frequently  save  the  life  of  an 
animal,  and  add  much  to  their  comfort  and  the  general  econo- 
my of  farm  management.  The  surplus  straw,  corn-stalks, 
and  coarse  hay  can  be  used  for  bedding,  though  it  is  gener- 
ally preferable  to  have  them  cut  and  fed  to  the  catile. 

WATER  FOR  THE  CATTLE  YARD 

Is  an  important  item,  and  if  the  expense  of  driving  the 
animals  to  a  i emote  watering  place,  the  waste  of  manure 
thereby  occasioned,  the  straying  of  cattle,  and  sometimea 
loss  of  limbs  or  other  injury  resulting  from  their  being 
forced  down  icy  slopes  or  through  excessive  m.id,  to  slake 
their  thirst — if  all  these  coasiderations  are  taken  into  account, 
7hey  will  be  found  animally  to  go  far  towards  the  expense 
of  supplying  water  in  the  yard,  where  it  would  at  all  timea 
be  accessible.     All  animals  require  water  in  v/intcr,  exct-pl 


312 


AMERICAN    AG5.ICULTUUE. 


such  as  have  a  full  supply  of  roots  ;  and  though  they  some- 
times omit  going  to  distant  and  inconvenient  places  where 
it  is  to  be  had,  they  may,  nevertheless,  suffer  materially  for 
the  want  of  it.  When  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  water 
into  the  yard  from  a  spring,  or  by  means  of  a  water  ram, 
or  it  is  not  easily  reached  by  digging,  an  effectual  Avay  of 
procuring  a  supply  through  most  of  the  year  is  by  the  con- 
struction of 

Cisterns. — Where  there  is  a  compact  clay,  no  further  pre- 
paration is  necessary  for  stock  purposes,  than  to  excavate  the 
cistern  of  a  sufficient  size  and  depth  ;  and  to  keep  up  the 
banks  on  every  side,  place  two  frames  of  single  joist  around 
^,  near  the  top  and  bottom,  between  which  and  the  banks, 
neavy  boards  or  plank  may  be  set  in  an  upright  position. 
The  earth  keeps  them  in  place  on  one  side,  and  the  joist 
prevents  their  falling.  They  require  to  be  only  tight  enough 
to  keep  the  clay  from  washing  in,  as  no  appreciable  quan- 
tity of  water  will  escape  from  the  sides  or  bottom.  I  have 
used  such  for  years,  Avithout  repairs  or  any  material  waste 
of  water.  They  should  be  made  near  the  buildings  ;  and 
the  rains  carefully  conducted  to  them  by  the  eaves-troughs 
and  pipes  from  an  extensive  range,  will  afford  an  ample 
supply. 

For  household  purposes,  one  should  be  made  with  more 

care  and  expense,  and  so 
constructed  as  to  afford 
pure  filtered  water  at  all 
times.  These  may  be 
formed  in  various  ways, 
and  of  different  materials, 
stone,  brick,  or  even 
wood;  though  the  two 
former  are  preferable. 
They  should  be  perma- 
nently divided  into  two 
apartments,  one  to  re- 
ceive the  water,  and  an- 
p.,g  104.  other  for  a  reservoir  to 

contain  such  as  is  ready  for  use.  Alternate  layers  of  gravel, 
sand,  and  charcoal  at  the  bottom  of  the  first,  and  sand  and 
gravel  in  the  last,  are  sufficient;  the  water  being  allowed  to 
pass  through  the  several  layers  mentioned,  will  be  rendered 
perfectly  free  from  all  impurities.  Some  who  are  particu- 
larly choice  in  preparing  water,  make  use.  of  filtering  stones, 
but  this  is  not  essential.     Occasional  cleaning  may  be  ne- 


FARtn    Ba^LDIMGS.  '^13 

ccrfsary,  and  the  substitution  of  new  filtering  materials  will 

at  all  times  keep  them  sweet. 

THE  CARRIAGE  HOUSE,  STABLE  AND  GRANARY. 

The  carriage  house  and  horse  stable  sometimes  occupy  a 
building  distinct  from  the  barns  and  other  outhouses,  which 
is  a  good  precaution  against  fire  ;  and  where  this  is  the  case, 
it  is  frequently  convenient  to  have  the  upper  loft  for  a  gra- 
nary. The  propriety  of  having  this  proof  against  rats  is 
obvious.  Yet  it  should  be  capable  of  thorough  ventilation, 
when  the  grain  is  damp  or  exposed  to  injury  from  -want  of 
air.  Entire  cleanliness  of  the  premises  is  the  best  remedy 
against  weevil  and  other  noxious  insects. 

The  corn-crib. — If  there  be  more  Indian  corn  on  the  prem- 
ises than  can  be  thinly  spread  over  an  elevated,  dry  floor, 
it  may  be  stored  in  a  corn-crib.  This  ought  to  occupy  an 
isolated  position  ;  and  must  be  made  with  upright  lattice- 
work, and  a  far  projecting  roof,  with  the  sides  inclining  from 
a  vertical  line  towards  each  other,  from  the  roof  downwards, 
to  avoid  the  admission  of  rain.  The  corn  in  the  cob  is 
stored  in  open  bins  on  either  side,  leaving  ample  room  in  the 
centre  for  threshing,  or  the  use  of  the  corn-sheller.  Close 
bins  may  occupy  the  ends  for  the  reception  of  the  shelled 
grain.  All  approach  from  rats  and  other  vermin  may  be 
avoided,  by  placing  the  building  on  posts,  with  projecting 
stones  or  sheet  iron  on  the  top,  and  so  high  that  they  cannot 
reach  it  by  jumping. 

A  TOOL  HOUSE  AND  WORK  SHOP 

Ought  always  to  have  a  place  about  the  premises.  In 
this  building,  all  the  minor  tools  may  be  arranged  on  shelves, 
or  in  appropriate  niches,  where  they  can  at  once  be  found, 
and  are  not  exposed  to  injury  or  theft.  Here  too  the 
various  farming  tools  may  be  repaired,  which  can  be  done 
in  those  leisure  intervals  that  often  occur. 

Aynple  shed  room  for  every  vehicle  and  implement  about 
tlu  farm  should  always  be  provided.  Their  preservation 
Avill.  fully  repay  the  cost  of  such  slight  structures,  as  may 
be  required  to  house  them.  A  wagon,  p]ow%  or  any  wooden 
implement,  Avill  wear  out  sooner  by  exposure  to  all 
weathers,  without  use,  than  by  careful  usage  with  proper 
protection. 

A  horse  poxcer,  either  stationary  or  movable,  can  be  made 
to  contribute  greatly  to  the  economy  of  farming  operations. 


314  AMERICAN    AGRICUI.~i;kE 

where  there  is  much  grain  lo  thresh,  or  straw,  hay  or  corn 
stalks  to  cut.  With  the  aid  of  this,  some  of  the  portable 
mills  may  crusli  and  grind  much  of  the  grain  required  for 
feeding.  Even  the  water  may  be  pumped  by  it  into  large 
troughs  for  the  use  of  cattle,  the  fuel  sawed,  and  various 
other  operations  performed,  which  may  add  much  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  farmer  and  save  more  expensive  labor. 

A  STEAMING  APPARATUS. 

Where  there  are  many  swine  to  fatten,  or  grain  is  to  be 
fed  to  cattle  or  horses,  this  is  at  all  times  an  economical  ap- 
pendage to  the  farm.  It  has  been  shown  from  several  ex- 
periments, that  cattle  and  slieep  will  generally  thrive  as  well 
on  raw  as  on  cooked  roots ;  but  horses  do  better  on  the  lat- 
ter, and  swme  will  not  fatten  on  any  other.  For  all  animals 
excepting  store  sheep,  and  perhaps  even  they  may  be  ex- 
cepted, grain  or  meal  is  better  when  cooked.  Food  must  be 
broken  up  before  the  various  anunal  organs  can  appropriate 
it  to  nutrition  ;  and  whatever  is  done  towards  etfecting  th 
object  before  it  is  fed  to  the  stock,  diminishes  the  necessity 
for  the  expenditure  of  vital  force  in  accomplishing  it,  and 
thereby  enables  the  animal  to  thrive  more  rapidly  and  do 
more  labor,  on  a  given  amount.  For  this  reason,  I  appre- 
hend, there  may  have  been  some  errors  undetected  in  the 
experiments  in  feeding  sheep  and  cattle  with  raw  and  cooked 
roots,  which  result  in  placing  them  apparently  ok  a  paras  to 
their  value  for  this  purpose. 

The  crushing  or  grinding  of  ■the  grain  insures  more  perfect 
mastication,  and  is  performed  by  machinery  at  much  less 
expense,  than  by  the  animals  consuming  it.  The  steaming 
or  boiling  is  the  final  step  towards  its  easy  and  profitable 
assimilation  in  the  animal  economy.  With  a  capacious 
steaming-box  for  ilie  reception  of  the  food,  the  roots  and 
meal,  and  even  cut-hay,  straw  and  stalks  may  be  thrown  in 
together,  and  all  will  thus  be  most  effectually  prepared  for 
nourishment.  There  is  another  advantage  derivable  from 
this  practice.  The  food  may  at  all  times  be  given  at  the 
temperature  of  the  anim:  1  system,  (about  98'-'  of  Farenheii), 
and  the  animal  heat  expended  in  warming  the  cold  and 
sometimes  frozen  food,  would  be  avoided. 

The  steaming  apparatus  is  variously  constructed.  I  havu 
used  one  consisting  of  a  circular  boiler  five  and  a  half  feet 
long  by  twenty  inches  diameter,  made  of  boiler  iron  and  laiJ 
lengthwise  on  a  brick  arch.     The  lire  is  pla«ed  underneatlj 


FARM    BUILC;NGS. 


315 


and  passes  through  the  whole  length  and  ovp  '  one  end,  then 
returns  in  contact  with  the  boiler,  through  side  flues  or 
pockets,  Avhere  it  enters  the  chimney.  This  j'iA'es  an  ex- 
posure to  the  flame  and  heated  air  of  about  10  feet.  The 
upper  part  is  coated  with  brick  and  mortar  to  retain  the  heat, 
and  three  small  test  cocks  are  applied  at  the  bottom,  middle 
and  upper  edge  of  the  exposed  end,  to  show  the  quantity  ol 
water  in  it ;  and  two  large  stop  cocks  on  the  upper  side  for 
receiving  the  water  and  delivering  the  steam,  completes  the 
boiler. 

The  steaming-box  is  oblong,  sev'en  or  eight  feet  iu  leno-th, 
by  about  four  feet  in  depth  and  width,  capable  of  holdino-  60 
or  70  bushels,  made  of  plank  grooved  together,  and  clamped 
and  keyed  with  four  sets  of  oak  joist.  A  large  circular  tub, 
strongly  bound  by  wagon  tire  and  keyed,  and  holdins?-  about 
25  bushels  is  also  used.  The  tops  of  both  are  securely 
fastened,  but  a  two  inch  auger  hole,  protected  by  a  leather 
valve,  permits  the  escape  of  any  excess  of  steam.  The 
steam  is  conveyed  from  the  boiler  into  these,  by  a  copper 
tube  attached  to  the  steam  delivery-cock,  and  it  is  continued 
into  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  tub  by  a  lead  pipe,  on  ac 
count  of  its  flexibility,  and  to  avoid  injury  to  the  food  from 
the  corrosion  of  the  copper.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  end 
of  the  pipe  in  the  steaming-box,  properly  guarded  by  a  metal 
strainer,  to  prevent  its  clogging  from  the  contents  of  the 
box. 


Fig.  105. 


1  find  no  difficulty  in  cooking  15   bushels  of  unground 


316  AMERICAN    AGEICULTURE. 

Indian  com  in  tha  tub,  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  hours, 

and  with  small  expense  of  fuel.  Fifty  bushels  of  roots  can 
be  perfectly  cooked  iu  the  box,  in  the  same  time.  For  swine, 
fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  milch  cows  and  working  horses, 
and  perhaps  oxen,  a  large  amount  of  food  may  be  saved  by 
the  use  of  such  or  a  similar  cooking  apparatus.  The  box 
may  be  enlarged  to  treble  the  capacity  of  the  foregoing, 
without  prejudicing  the  operation,  and  even  with  a  boiler  of 
the  same  dimensions,  but  it  would  take  a  longer  time  to 
effect  the  object.  If  the  boiler  were  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  box,  the  cooking  process  would  of  course  be  accom- 
plished in  the  same  time. 

Fig.  105  is  a  good  form  of  a  steaming  apparatus,  essen- 
tially similar  in  principle  to  the  one  described. 

ICE  HOUSES. 

These,  in  the'  rapid  progress  of  improvement  and  the  in- 
creasing comforts  and  luxuries  of  this  country,  are  justly 
deemed  an  important  addition  to  the  farm  buildings.  They 
are  frequently  essential  to  the  operations  of  the  dairy,  and  the 
preservation  of  milk,  butter  and  cream  for  a  longer  time, 
and  in  better  condition,  than  is  otherwise  attainable.  They 
are  also  useful  for  keeping  meats,  fruits,  eggs  and  vegetables 
unchanged,  for  an  almost  indefinite  period.  "Whether  this 
is  done  with  reference  to  sending  the  articles  to  market  at 
the  most  convenient  or  advantageous  time,  or  to  their  con- 
siunption  at  home,  it  is  equally  consistent  with  economy. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dig  into  the  earth  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  a  good  ice  house.  Indeed,  a  large  quantity  of  ice 
can  be  stored  more  cheaply  by  constructing  the  ice  house 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  main  object  is  to  secure 
isolation  of  the  ice,  cuid  surround  it  tcith  an  adequate  bar- 
rier of  non-conducting  materials.  To  do  this  effectually,  a 
triple  wall  of  p. auk  or  boards  must  be  made,  from  six  to 
eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  spaces  between  each  compact- 
ly filled  with  straw  or  tan  bark.  The  bottom  must  be 
equally  Avell  secured,  and  have  drains  for  the  escape  of  the 
water,  yet  not  for  the  admission  of  air.  The  top  has  a  double 
roof,  and  a  thick  coating  of  stra\v  is  spread  over  the  ice. 

The  preservation  of  ice  depends,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing, 
on  the  observance  of  principles,  of  which  many  are  entirely 
neglectful.  There  should  be  no  access  to  the  ice  except  on 
the  top,  and  the  sides  and  ends  must  be  perfectly  tight 
Cold  air  being  heavier  thai:  warm,  in  the  ratio  of  its  dimin« 


FARM    BUILDINGS.  317 

i8l\8d  temperature ;  it  follows,  that  air  which  is  near  the 
freezing  point,  if  sustained  by  tight  walls,  cannot  be  displaced 
by  warmer  air,  unless  a  current  is  forced  upon  it  from  with- 
ovit,  which  must  be  avoided.  As  well  may  mercury  be 
driven  out  of  a  vessel  by  pouring  water  into  it.  The  cold 
air  settles  upon  the  ice  and  remains  there  permanently,  and 
of  course  the  ice  has  no  tendency  to  melt  even  during  the 
hottest  Aveather.  By  adhering  to  these  principles,  ice  may 
be  kept  for  years,  and  almost  without  waste.  It  is  important 
to  put  up  ice  in  the  largest,  most  compact  blocks,  and  in  the 
coldest  weather.  By  the  use  of  large  pieces  closely  Avedged 
together,  there  is  security  against  the  circulation  of  air 
through  the  mass  ;  and  by  doing  this  in  the  severest  weather, 
the  ice  goes  into  store  with  a  greatly  augmented  intensity  of 
cold.  Some  do  not  consider  the  difference  in  the  tempera- 
ture either  of  snow  or  ice,  when  each  are  equally  susceptible 
of  degrees  of  temperature  below  32°,  as  the  atmosphere, 
metals,  or  other  substances.  If  put  into  the  store  room  at 
zero,  ice  must  be  elevated  32"^  before  it  rises  to  the  melt- 
ing point,  and  it  has,  therefore,  all  this  stock  of  cold  (priva- 
tion of  heat)  which  it  must  first  exhaust,  before  it  assumes 
the  form  of  a  liquid.  A  rigid  observance  of  the  above  rules, 
will  preserve  ice  anywhere,  either  above  or  below  ground. 

The  materials  for  farm  buildings  I  have  assumed  to  be 
of  wood,  from  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of  this  material 
generally  in  tiie  United  States.  Yet  when  not  too  expen- 
sive, or  where  capital  can  be  spared  for  this  purpose,  brick 
or  stone  should  always  take  their  place.  They  are  more 
durable,  less  exposed  to  fire,  and  they  sustain  a  more  equable 
temperature  in  the  extremes  of  the  seasons. 

Barns  and  sheds  cannot,  like  houses,  be  conveniently  made 
rat  proof,  but  they  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  afford  them 
few  hiding  places,  where  they  will  be  out  of  the  reach  of 
cats  and  terriers,  which  are  indispensable  around  infested 
premises.  These  and  an  occasional  dose  of  arsenic,  care- 
fully an'd  variously  disguised,  will  keep  their  numbers  within 
moderate  bounds.  If  poison  be  given,  it  would  be  well 
to  shut  up  the  cats  and  terriers  for  three  or  four  days  until 
the  object  is  effected,  or  they,  too,  might  partake  of  it. 

LIGHTNIN&  RODS. 

During  the  stiltry  weather  of  American  summers,  thunder 
showers  are  frequent  and  often  destructive  to  buildings. 
Tivis  danger  i.9  much  increased  for  such  barns  as  have  just 


31  C  AMERICAN    AGRICULTURE. 

received  their  annual  stores  of  newly  cut  hay  and  grain. 
The  humid  gases,  generated  by  the  heating  and  sweating 
of  the  hay,  which  immediately  follows  its  accumulation  in 
closely-packed  masses,  offers  a  strong  attraction  to  electri- 
city, just  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  abundant.  It  is  an 
object  of  peculiar  importance  to  the  farmer,  to  guard  hi« 
buildings,  at  such  times,  with  properly  constructed  lightning 
rods  ;  and  they  are  a  cheap  mode  of  insurance  against  fire 
from  this  cause,  as  the  expense  is  trifling  and  the  security 
great. 

It  is  a  principle  of  general  application,  that  a  rod  will 
protect  an  object  at  twice  the  distance  of  its  height  above 
any  given  point,  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  its  upper  termin- 
ation. Thus  a  rod  attached  to  one  side  of  a  chimney  of 
four  feet  diameter,  must  have  its  upper  point  two  feet  above 
the  chimney  to  protect  it.  Its  height  above  the  ridge  of  a 
building,  must  be  at  least  one  half  the  greatest  horizontal 
distance  of  the  ridge  from  the  perpendicular  rod. 

Materials  a7id  manner  of  constructioyi. — The  rod  may 
be  constructed  of  soft,  round  or  square  iron  (the  latter  being 
preferable),  in  pieces  of  convenient  length,  and  not  less  than 
3-4ths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  should  not  be  hooked 
into  each  other,  but  attached  either  by  screwing  the  ends 
together,  or  forming  a  point  and  socket  to  be  fastened  by  a 
rivet,  so  that  the  rod  \vhen  complete,  will  appear  as  one 
continuous  surface  of  equal  size  throughout.  If  a  square 
rod  be  used,  it  will  attract  the  electricity  through  its  entire 
length,  if  the  corners  be  notched  with  a  single  downward 
stroke  of  a  sharp  cold  chisel,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
inches.  Each  of  these  will  thus  become  a  point  to  attract 
and  conduct  the  electricity  to  the  earth.  A  bimdie  of  wires, 
thick  ribbons,  or  tubes  of  metal,  are  more  efficient  con- 
ductors, than  an  equal  quantity  of  matter  in  the  solid  round 
or  square  rods,  as  the  conducting  power  of  bodies,  is  in  the 
ratio  of  tlieir  surfaces.  No  part  of  the  rod  must  be 
painted,  as  its  efficiency  is  thereby  greatly  impaired.  The 
upper  extremity  may  consist  of  one  finely-drawn  point, 
which  should  be  of  copper  or  silver,  or  well-gilded  iron,  to 
prevent  rusting.  The  lower  part  of  the  rod,  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  should  terminate  in  tu'o  or  three  flattened, 
divergent  branches,  leading  several  feet  outwardly  from  the 
building,  and  biuried  at  the  depth  of  perpetual  moisture,  in  a 
bed  of  charcoal.  Both  ths  charcoal  and  moisture  are  good 
■conductors,  and  will  ensure  the  passage  of  the  electricity 


FARM    BUILDINGS.  319 

:ato  the  ground,  and  away  from  the  premises.  The  rod 
may  be  fastened  to  the  building  by  glass  or  well-seasoned 
wood,  boiled  in  l-nseed  oil.  then  well  baked  and  covered 
with  several  coats  of  copal  varnish. 

The  conductors  of  electricity  in  the  ordei  of  their  con- 
ducting power,  are  copper,  s'Ver,  gold,  iron,  tvn,  lead,  zinc, 
f  iatina,  charcoal,  black  lead  ;^plumbago),  strong  acids,  soot 
and  lampblack,  metallic  ores,  metallic  oxides,  diluted  acids, 
saline  solutions,  animal  fluids,  sea  water,  fresh  water,  ice 
above  0',  living  vegetables,  living  animals,  flame,  smoke, 
vapor  and  humid  gases,  salts,  rarified  air,  dry  earth,  an^d 
massive  minerals.  The  non-conductors  in  their  order,  are 
shellac,  amber,  resins,  sulphur,  wax,  asphaltum,  glass,  and 
all  vitrified  bodies,  including  crystalized  transparent  mine- 
rals, raw  silk,  bleached  silk,  dyed  silk,  wool,  hair  and 
feathers,  dry  gases,  dry  paper,  parchment  and  leather,  baked 
wood  and  dried  vegetables. 

Palladium,  reckoned  among  the  noble  metals,  was  first 
discovered  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1803.  It  has  been  found 
to  possess  a  conducting  power  about  50  per  cent,  greater 
than  copper,  and  consequently,  is  the  best  conductor  knoAvii. 
This  metal  is  not  liable  to  oxidation,  and  is  therefore,  in  every 
respect  the  most  desirable  material  for  the  points  or  upper 
extremity  of  the  rods,  and  for  this  purpose  it  has  recently 
been  extensively  introduced. 

It  will  be  ^een  above,  that  water  is  a  tolerable  conductor 
of  electricity,  and  when  exposed  to  rain,  all  the  non-con- 
ductors are  liable  to  become  temporary  conductors.  To 
secure  them  as  non-conductors,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
protect  them  from  contact  with  rain  or  moisture. 

Rust  or  the  oxides  of  metals,  destroy  their  conducting 
power,  and  Vo  secure  them  as  conductors,  it  is  essential  to 
keeji  the  rods  free  from  rust,  paint,  oil  or  varnish,  leaving 
nothing  on  the  exte  br  b"t  the  pure  metal. 


r 


INDEI. 


Page 
Agricultural  education...   .  11,300,  301 

Agriculture  defined ~ 

importance  of. ..« 9 — Vi 

legislation  for 9 

NatioDfil  Board  of 10 

Ailantus,  see  tries. 
Air,  essential  to  the  roots  of  plants  85,  8G 
Alluvial    soils,  cliaracter,  and  man- 
agement of 22 

Ammonia,  how  composed 58 

Am.Tionical  liquor,  useful  as  manure    5i 

Anal  vzrr.g  soils II 

marls 23 

Animal  subsl:inc»-s  for  manure 70 

Apatiie,  see  phosphate  of  lime. 

Apple,  see  fruits. 

Apricot,  see  FRriTs. 

Arrow-root,  liow  cultivated... .  241,  242 

Artichoke,  the  Jeiosalern ItO 

cultivation  and  uses IJG 

Ash,  the  White,  sceTRKEs. 
Ashes  detinedand  quantity  in  vegeta- 
ble.-^      35 

of  what  composed.  ••...• 35 

quantitv  abstracted  from  the  soil 

by  criips 36,  270 

economy  of  .IS  manure 37 

quantity  to  be  applied 37 

beneficial  for  grass  and  clover  ..    37 

coal,  how  applied 38 

from  marine  plants 38 

from  peat  how  treated 38 

B. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  see  treks. 
Banyan  tree,  see  fevits. 

Barley 142—144 

varieties,  soil,  and  cultivation.. .  143 

harvesting  and  uses 143,  144 

Earns,  how  made 307 — 311 

Beans,  soil  and  cultivation ifU 

harvesting 164,165 

uses 165 

the  English  field 165 

Beets,  varieties,  planting,  and  culti- 
vating   \ 181 

harvesting 181,  182 

uses  and  analysis  of. 182,  183 

Birds,  utility  of 281,  282 

Bones,  of  what  composed 45 

how  treated  and  applied.   ..  45 — 47 

Breeding   dt-fined 8 

Bricks,  broken,  useful  .^s  manure...     4U 
Broom  com,  soil  and  manure  for....  187 

planting  and  cultivating 188 

«irepafing  the  brush  and  uses  1^8, 18J 


Buckwheat,  cult  nation  and  uses  160,161 

Buildings  for  the  Farm 302—319 

BMttonwood,  see  treks. 

C. 

Calcareous    soils,  see    marls  and 

SOILS. 

Canada  thistle 276 

Canary  seed,  cultivation  and  uses...   161 

Canp,  see  scoiR  cane. 

Carbon,  increases  in  meadows. ...  37,  38 

described 56 

Carbonates  as  manures 49 

Carl>onic  acid  described 56 

its  properties 57 

caution  in  u-sing 230 

Carburetted  hydrogen  gas 58 

Carriage  house 313 

Carrot,  soil  and   varieties 178 

planting  and  harvesting 178 

its  uses 179, 180 

Castor  bean,  cultivation  nf 241 

Cedar  of  Lebanon,  see  trees. 

Cellars,  how  eonslructed 306 

Chalk  is  carbonate  of  lime 197 

Charcoal  for  roanHre 50 

Chemical  changes  illustrated 18, 19 

Cherry,  see  pr.riTs. 
Chloride  of  sndiara.  see  salt. 

Chlorides  as  manures 49 

Chlorine  essential  in  soils 34 

combined  with  soda  7 

Cisterns,  how  nl.^de... 312,313 

Clay  soils  described 14,  15 

how  managed 17 — 20 

useful  as  manure  when  burned  49, 50 

Clovers,  cultivation  of. 117—127 

common  red  or  northern 117 

cultivating 117,  120 

cutting  and  curing 119 

importance  of 120 

as  a  fertiliser 120,  121 

harvesting  seed 121 

southi-rn 122 

white  or  creeping 122 

yellow  or  shamrock 122 

crimson  or  French 123 

lucern    123,124 

sainfoin 124 

Bokhara  or  sweet  scented 124 

Com,  see  Isdias  corn. 

Cornplanter  describfd 96 

Corn  crib,  how  made 313 

Cotton,  seed  for  manure 71 

quantity  raised  in  U.  States  198,  199 

climate  and  soil 190 

planting 199,  20C 

varieties  of  seed 20'* 


^ 


INDEX. 


321 


?age 

Cotton,  cultivation  of   200,  2U I 

enemies  and  diseases i20l 

harvesting 201,20-2 

saving  seed  202,203 

topping 203 

jS«a-/s/u?id,  wliere  raised  203 

preparation  ot°  land  and  planting 

203, 204 

afterculture 204,205 

manuring  and  amount  of  crop..  205 
varieties  of  cotton  seed  ....   205,  206 

changes  in  and  uses  of 206 

Cultivator,  use  of.  and  how  made  95,  96 
Curculio  described,  how  destroyed.  .  259 
Currant,  see  fruits. 

D. 

Dews,  effects  of 27,  28.  85 

how  secured 85 

dew-point,  when  attained  ...  27,28 

Draining  described,  its  advantages  83—86 
spring  and  swamp 86,  87 

Drill  barrows,  how  used   96 

E. 

Education,  agricultural 11,  300, 301 

Electricity,  conductors  and  non-con- 
ductors of 319 

Electro-culture  considered 279,  280 

Elm.  see  trees. 

Ergot  or  cockspur 142 

Experiments  among  farmers  .. .  280,  281 


Fallow  system  described 77,  78 

Farming,  good  only  profitable 41 

Feeding  defined 7 

Feldspar  useful  as  manure 51 

Fences,  excess  of  in  U.  Stales  283—288 
varieties  and  materials  of . .  284,  285 

wire 285,  286 

hurdle 286 

Fibrous  covering,  its  advantages  27G— 279 
Figs,  see  fruits. 

Fish  for  manure 70,  71 

Flax,  soil  for 189,  190 

cultivation  and  harvesting..  190,  191 
water-rotting  and  varieties  of  ..  191 
its  importance  for  manufacturing  191 

Frogs,  their  utility - .   282  \ 

Pruiu 248—269 

the  apple 248—257 

soil  fi)r 248,249 

planting 249,  250 

cultivation  250—252 

pruning 252,  253 

grafting  and  budding 253  ] 

rearing  and  selecting  trees. .  253, 254  i 
gathering  and  preserving  the  fruit  254  j 

value  for  farm  stock 254,  255 

making  cider 255,  2.56  ' 

making  vinegar 256  i 

best  varieties 256,257 

the  pear 257,258 

thequince 258! 

thecberry 338,3591 


Page 

Fruits,  the  plum 259,260 

the  peach 200,  261 

the  apricot 261 

the  nectarine    261 

the  olive 261,2(>3 

the  orange 263,  264 

the  fig 204,265 

the  banyan 264 

the  grape  285,206 

the  currant 266 

the  gooseberry 266,  267 

the  raspberry 267 

the  strawberry 267 

the  cranberry  267,269 

6. 

Geine  defiued 34 

Ginseng  described,    how    reared   in 

the  United  Slates 242.243 

Gl.-iss,  broken,  for  manure 50,  51 

Gooseberry,  see  fruits. 

Grain  and  its  cultivation 127 — 166 

Granite  useful  as  manure 51 

Grapes,  see  fruits. 

Grasses  defined 97 

number  cultivated 97 

Timothy 98 

meadow  fox-tail 99 

green  (or  blue)   99 

roughish  meadow 100 

flat  stalked  meadow  or  blue....  100 

annual  meadow 100 

narrow  leaved 100 

redlop 100,101 

upright  bent 101 

tall  oat 101 

the  fescues 101,102 

orchard  or  cock's  foot 103 

American  or  swamp 102,  130 

biennial  rye  or  ray 103 

florin 103 

sweet  scented  vernal 104 

lawn  and  mountain 104 

ribbon 104 

ga^na 105 

Egyptian  or  Guinea 105 

Bermuda  105,106 

crab 106 

winter 106 

muskeet 106 

grama 106,  107 

buffalo  107 

tomillo  or  screw 107 

prairie 107 

poney 107 

wild  rice 108 

tussac 108 

arundo 108 

value  of  American 108,109 

sweet-scented,  soft  or  holy 109 

table  of 110,111 

sowing  grass  seeds 1 12 

lands  that  should  be  in 112 — 114 

means  of  renovating 114,  115 

pasturing  meadows IIS 

rotation  in  grasses,..., 119 


S22 


INDEX. 


Page 

Grassc,  time  for  cutting >   115 

lods  in  cuiing ■•   115 

Gravelly  soils,  liow  treated 21 

Grazin};  defineii 7 

Green  crops  for  manure 71 

Green  sand,  of  wliat  conipo*3d 44 

its  beneficial  etfects 44 

Guano,  where  found  and  from  wliat 

derived 52 

Peruvian,  analysis  of 53 

African  or  Ichaboe 53 

Patagonian ••     53 

how  applied 54 

used  as  steeps 54 

Gurneyism,  see  fibrous  covering. 

Gypsum,  if  what  composed 44 

beneficial  application  of 44,  45 

H. 

Harrowing 94 

Hedges 287,288 

Hemlock,  see  trees. 

Hemp 191—198 

soil  and  cultivation 192 

cutting',  drying  and  securing 193 

ricking 194 

dew-rotting  and  shocking 195 

brake  and  water-rotting 19(> 

raising  seed 190—198 

\ts  uses 198 

Horse  powers,   for  the    farm   313,   314 

Hops,  cultivation  01 237,241 

Horticulture  defined 8 

Houses  for  the  farm 302-304 

Humus  defined 34 

Hydrogen  described 57,58 

useful  in  ammonia 58 

I. 

Ice  houses,  utility  of 316 

how  constructed 316,317 

Implements  for  the  farm 93,  94 

Indian  corn 1 48 — 154 

quantity  raised  within  the  United 

States •   148 

varieties  of 149,  150 

analysis  of. 149 

soil  and  preparation  for J  60 

selection  of  seed 150,151 

hybridizing 150 

preparation  of  seed 151 

planting 151 

cultivation  of 152 

harvesting •   152,  153 

kiln-drying 153 

for  soiling  and  other  uses 154 

Indigo,  cultivation  of 225,226 

Introduction 7 — 12 

Iodine  essenliiil  in  soils 34 

Irrigation 79 — 83 

waters  suitable  for 80 

eft'ects  of 81 

time  for  applying 81 

manner  of 82 

advantages  of. 82,  83 

quantity  of  grass  from 82,  83 

kind  of  soils  for... ■•■•  •  —  •     ••    f3 


Page 

K. 
Kelp  described.... t...    38 

L. 

Larch,  see  trees. 

Lava,  useful  as  manure 51 

Leguminous  plants 162 — 166 

Lightning  rods 317 — 319 

materials  for,  and  how  made  318, 319 
conductors  of  electricity 319 

Lime  described 39 

its  value  to  soils 39 

its  use  with  clover 40 

how  applied 41,  42 

magnesian,  its  effect 42 

quantity  for  land 42 

applied  to  meadows 42 

phosphate  of — see  bones. 
carlionate  of,  large  quantity    in 
soils 31 

Locust,  see  trees. 

Loamy  soils  described 21 

Lucern,  how  cultivated  and  value 

of 123,124 

Lupine,  the  white  for  manure 76 

how  cultivated  for  food 166 

M. 

Madder 226—230 

soil,    preparation    and    culture 

227,228 

harvesting 228,229 

kiln-drying 229,230 

preparation  for  market  and  pro- 
fits of 230 

Maize,  see  Indian  corn. 

Mangers,  how  made 300,  311 

Magnolia,  see  trees. 

Magnesian  lime,  its  effects  on  land..    42 

Manures 32 — 76 

their  inartificial  effects 32,  33 

defined  and  classed 33 

partial,  insufficient 34 

what  is  requisite  in 34 

various  inorganic  defined  and  ap- 
plied     35 — 55 

ashes 35 — 38 

from  coal,  sea  weed  and  peat... .    38 

lime r 39-42 

do.  magnesian 41,42 

marl 42,43 

analysis  of 43 

shell  sand 43,44 

green  sand 44 

gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris 44 

bones 45 — 4T 

phosphate  of  lime 47 

salt 47,  48 

sulphate  of  soda 48 

sulphate  of  magnesia 48 

sulphate  of  potash 48 

nitrate  of  soda 48 

nitrate  of  potash 48 

carbonates,    nitrates,   sulphates, 
phosphates,  silicates,  and  chlo- 
rides      49 

old  plaster 49 

broken  brick •••«•     49 


INDEX. 


323 


Page 

Manures,  burnt  clay 49 

charcoal 50 

broken  glass  or  silicate  of  potash    50 
crushed    mica,    feldspar,     lava, 
the  trap  rocks,  granite,   slenite, 

&c 51 

spent  lye  of  the  asherie^i 52 

ammoniacal  liquor 53 

guano 52 — 55 

soot 55 

*Jrganic  matiures 56-78 

of  what  composed....56— 59,  06,  67 
barnyard  how  managed. .59 — 67,  310 

analysed 60,  67 

long  and  short 60,  61 

decomposition  of 61,6  2 

tanks  for  holding  liquid 63 

management  of 63,  04 

value  of 64,  65 

quantity  voided  by  different  ani- 
mals      65 

various  solid  animal 65 — 67 

quality  of  food  affects 66 

analysis  of  barnyard 66,  67 

special  manures  defined 67 

poudrette  and  urate 67,69 

night  soil 68,  69 

excrements  of  fowls 69,  70 

flesh,  blood,  hair,  bristles,  horns, 
hoofs,  pelts,  the  waste  of  wool- 
en manufactories  and  tanneries    70 

fish 70 

cotton  seed 7l 

seaweed 72 

peat 73 

turf 73 

Bwamp  muck 73 

green  crops  for 73 

advantagesof. 76,77 

clover  for 74 

the  cowpea 75 

spurry 76 

white  lupine 76 

Maple  sugar  where  made 219 

quantity  of  in  United  States...   220 
season  for  and  manner  of  tapping 

tiees 220,  221 

mokoks  for  packmg  it 220 

making  sugar 221,  222 

Maple  tree,  see  trees. 

Marble  is  carbonate  of  lime 19 

Marls  of  what  composed,  and  how 

applied 42,43 

how  analysed 43 

green  sand,  see  oreen  sand. 
Marly  soils  described,  and  how  treat- 
ed    15,  16,  21 

Meadows  how  managed 97—127 

Meadowlands  should  remain  112 — 114 

Means  of  renovating 114,  115 

See  GRASSES. 
Mechanical  division  of  soils....    87 — 96 

Mica,  useful  as  manure 51 

Millet,  cultivation  of 159,  160 

Indian  or  grand 160 

Xuck  from  swamps  as  manure 73 

liulb  erry ,  varieties  for  silkworms  244, 245 


Page 

Mulberry  for  shade  trees 236 

Mustard,  cultivation  of  the  black...  293 
the  white 237 

N. 

Nectarine,  see  fruits. 

Night  soil,  how  treated 68,69 

See  POUDRETTE. 

Nitrate  of  potash  for  manure    48 

of  soda  for  manure 48 

for  steeps  48 

Nitric  acid  described,  its  utility 59 

formed  in  the  shade    278,  279 

Nitrogen  described 38 

Nutritive  equivalents  of  food 183 

table  of 184,185 

O. 

Oaks,  see  trees. 

Oats 144—148 

varieties 145,  146 

cultivation 146,147 

harvesting 147 

uses 147,148 

analysis  of , 148 

Olive,  see  fruits. 

Orange,  see  fruits. 

Oxides  described  .  ..., 57 

Oxygen  described 57 

P. 

Parsnip  cultivation  anduses 180 

Pastures 97 — 127 

means  of  renovating 114, 115 

how  managed 125 — 127 

Peach,  see  fruits. 

Pear,  see  fruits. 

Peas,  soil  for,  and  varieties 162 

cultivation 162,163 

harvesting 163 

Pea,  the  cow  or  stock  (Southern)  75,  163 

Peanut,  uses  and  cultivation  of 161 

Peat  soils  described 16 

cultivating ^—24,87 

analysed 72 

for  manure 72 

ashes  applied  to  laads 38 

Pecan,  see  trees. 

Phosphate  of  lime,  see  bones.  « 

used  as  a  fossil 47 

Phosphorite,  see  phosphate  of  lime. 

Pindar,  see  pea  nut. 

Pine,  the  long  leaved,  see  trees. 
the  while,  see  trees. 

Planting  defined 8 

Plaster  of  Paris,  see  gypsum. 

Plows  described  88,93 

shovel 96 

Plowing,  principles  of 88—92 

claylands 89 

sandy  lands 90 

depth  of. 91 

subsoil 85,86,81,93 

Plum,  see  fhoits. 

Poplar,  ee^  trees. 


324 


INDEX. 


Page 
Potato,  varieties  Df,  and  how   pro- 
duced    ••  167,168 

soil,  and  qualities  of I'iS 

planting  and  cultTvation IW 

harvesting  and  storing 160,  1?0 

diseases 170 — I  /v. 

prevention  of  rot. 171,  17'2 

its  uses 17'2 

Potato,  the  sweet 172—174 

soil 172,173 

cultivation 173,  174 

preservation  of. 17'J 

Poudrette,  defined  and  applied 67 

Preface 4,  5 

Profits  from  Targe  crops 40, 41 

a 

Quince,  see  fruits. 
R. 

Raspberry,  see  fruits. 

Rice,  varieties  of 1 55 

cultivation  of  lowland J55,  136 

of  upland 156,  157 

varieties  and  value 157 — 159 

quantity  raised  in  United  Slate»    159 

Roller,  how  constructed  and  used    94,  95 

Roots,  cultivation  of 167—186 

Rotation  of  crops  269—275 

systems  of. 274,  275 

Rust  in  wheat 133 

Ruta  baga,  see  turnip. 

Rye 139—142 

Soil,  and  cultivation  of 140,  141 

southern 141 

forsoiling 141,  142 

diseases  in 142 

S. 

aainfoin,  cultivation  of 124 

Salt,  of  what  composed,  and   how 

used  for  manure 47,  48 

Saltpetre,  of  what  composed 48 

for  sleeps.... 4ts,  49 

Sandy  soils,  described  and  classed..  •     15 

management  of.. , . .  2i),  21 

Seaweed  as  manure , 72 

ashes  from 38 

Sheds,  how  made 311 

necessity  for 313 

Shell  sand,  of  what  composed 43 

its  effects,  and  how  applied....     44 

Sienite,  useful  as  manure 51 

Silicates,  as  manure 49 

of  lime  defined  and  applied  . .    19,  49 

alumina 19 

potash 50 

Silk,  quantity  imported  into  the  Uni 

ted  States 244 

best  mulberry  for 244,  245 

varieties  of  worms 245 

rearing  and  management  of  245,  246 

reeling 246,  2t7 

Smut  in  wheat 133 

Snakes,  utility  of 283 


Pag* 

Soils,  defined  and  texture  of 13 

classified  and  described 14 — 17 

marly,  classified  and  described 

15-16 

analysed 16 

vegetable  molds ....    ifj 

clay,  treatment  of 17 — 2t! 

sand,  described 1.1 

how  managed 20,  21 

gravelly 21 

loamy 2) 

marly  and  calcareous 2) 

alluvial 22 

peats 22,23 

subsoils  and  their  management 

24-26 

made  useful  by  subsoil  plow  24 — 26 
change  in  soils  by  cultivation. . .    25 
change  in  soils  witlwut  cultiva- 
tion     32,  33 

additional  properties  of 26—29 

Jethro  Til  11 's   management  with 

27 

friableness  and  color  of 27 

surface  of  soil  important 27 

dew-point  in,  when  attained. ...    29 

best  for  imbiliing  water 28,  29' 

experiments  with 28,29 

necessity  of  fertilizing  materials 

in 2br 

analysis  of 30,  31 

what  all  fertile  soils  must  con- 
tain      34 

Sole  defined 83 

Soot,  how  applied  as  manure 55 

Spading 87 

Spint  lye  useful  as  manure 52 

Spurry,  for  green  manure 75 

ciiliiyatinn  and  uses  of 125 

Steaming  apparatus,  its  utility 314 

how  constructed 314—316 

Strawberry,  see  fruits. 

Subsoils  and  their  management..  24 — 26 

Subsoil  plowing 85,86,91,  92 

Sugar,  see  maple  sugar  and  suoar 

CANE. 

Sugar  cane 206—219 

history  of  in  the  United   States 

206—208 

varieties  of 208 

soil  for 208 

seed  cane 208,  209 

preservation  of  cane 209 

preparation  for  planting 209,  210 

advantages  of  wide  rows 210 

renovating  the  land  for....  210,  211 

planting 211 

cultivating 211- -213 

advantages  of  deep  and  thorough 

plowing 213 

harvesting. 213,  214 

quaniity  of  suear  from  cane. ...  214 

composition  of  cane 214,  215 

value  for  animal  food 215 

analysis  of  sugar 215 

makingsugar. 215,  216 

manures  for  cane 216 — 21? 


INDEX. 


320 


Page 

Sugar  cane,  analysis  of  the  ash....  217 

quantity  per  acre -17 

drainajieof  cane  fields 218,  219 

Suipliate  of  lime,  see  oypsum. 

of  soda  for  manure 48 

of  magnesia 48 

potash ■IB 

Sumach,  varieties  of 234,  2,35 

cultivation     and    preparing    for 
market 235 

Swamps  reclaimed 87 

Sycamoi«,_  see  trees. 

T. 

Tanks  for  liquid  manure 62 

Tares,  uses  and  cultivation  of 165 

Tea  plant,  how  cultivated 243,  244 

Teasle,  or  fuller's  thistle,  how  culti- 
vated    2:15,236 

Tillage,  husbandry  defined 7 

Timber,  time  for  cutting 2D8,  299 

Timber,  preservation  and   improve- 
ment of 299 

Toads,  utility  of 282 

Tobacco,  soil  for 222, 223 

cultivation,     priming,     topping, 

worming,  and  suckering 223 

harvesting 223,224 

v.irieties,  qualities,  and  analysis  of  224 

quantity  produced 224,  225 

Tools,  the  best,  most  economical,  299,300 

Tool  house  for  the  farm 313 

Frees,  see  fruits. 

for  shade 288—295 

how  arranged   289 

varieties  of  trees  in  North  Amer- 
ica    289.290 

the  sugar  maple 219—222,291 

the  mulberry 244,245,293 

the  oaks 290 

the  live  oak 290,291 

theelm 291 

the  black  walnut 291 

the  white  oak  291 

the  white  and  weeping  willow  .  292 

the  locust    292 

the  button  wood  or  aycamore  . .  292 

the  magnolia  293 

the  pecan 293 

the  paper  mulberry 293 

the  Lombardy  poplar   293 

the  tulip  tree 293 

the  ailantus    294 

the  larch    294 

the  cedar  of  Lebanon 294 

tbe  bemlock 39£ 


Page 

Trees,  the  balm  of  Gi!  cad  2H5 

the  long  leaved  pine    295 

the  white  pine 29 "i 

Tulip  tree,  fee  trkks. 

Tull,  Jethro,  histheory  of  cnltivalion 

20,  27 

Turf  as  manure 37 

Turnip,  flat  EnglisI 174,  I75 

soil  for 174 

cultivation 175 

Rutabaga  175-178 

cultivation 175,176 

enemies  and  remedies 176 

harvesting 176^  177 

storing  and  feeding 177 

varieties  of 177, 178 

value  of. 178 

U. 
Under-draining,  see  draining. 

Urate  defined  and  applied 68 

ITrea  defined  and  applied 68 

Urine  analyzed 68 

V. 

Vegetable  molds 76 

Vegetables,  loss  in  drying 36 

Vetches,  cultivation  and  uses 165 

Vinegar,  to  make 256 

W. 

Walnut  tree,  the  black,  see  trees. 

Water  useful  as  manure 79 — 83 

rain,  how  beneficial 84,  85 

dissolves  minerals 81 

time  for  applying  to  meadows  ...  81 

for  the  cattle  yard 311,  312 

Weeds,  how  treated 27j,  276 

to  destroy  in  grain 143 

Weld,  cultivation  of 232—234 

Wheat,  qualities  of 127—129 

preparing  land  for 129,  130 

selection  and  preparation  of  seed  130 
quantity  of  seed   and    time  of 

sowing 131 

manner  of  sowing 131,  132 

after  culture 132 

enemies  of 132.133 

harvesting 133,  135 

thrashing  and  stacking 135 

varieties  of  seed 135,  138 

spring 138,139 

Woad,  cultivation  and  use  of. .  230—2.32 

Woodlands,  how  managed 295 — 298 

Woolen  waste  and  rags,  useful  aa 
manure 70 


J 


i 


r 


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Work  is  superior  to  any  other.  It  contains  Reliable  Information  for  the  Cultivation  of 
every  variety  of  Field  and  Garden  Crops,  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  Manures,  descriptions 
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Grasses,  Grains,  Animals,  Implements,  Insects,  &c.,  &c.  By  GonvEKNECR  Emerson  of 
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AMERICAN  WEEDS  Am)  USEFUL  PLANTS,       ...  .160 

An  Illustrated  Edition  of  Agricultural  Botany  ;  An  Enu- 
meration and  Description  of  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants  which  merit  the  notice  or 
require  the  attention  of  American  Agriculturists.  By  Wm.  Daru.ngton,  M.  D.  Re- 
vised, with  Additions,  by  Gborge  Tudrbbr,  Prof,  of  Mat.  Med.  and  Botany  in  the  New 
York  College  of  Pharmacy.  lUu.^tratod  with  nearly  300  Figures,  drawn  expressly  for 
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Or  a  OoxMpend  of  American  Agriculture  ;    being  a  Practical 

Treatise  on  Soils,  Manures,  Draining,  Irrigation,  Grasses,  Grain,  Roots,  Fruits,  Cotton, 
Tobacco,  Sugar  Cane,  Rice,  and  every  Stiiple  Product  of  the  United  SLUes  ;  with  the 
best  methods  of  Planting,  Cultivating  and  Preparation  for  Market.  Illustrated  with  more 
than  100  engravings. 

ALLEN'S  (R.  L.)  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,         •      *  75 

Being  a  History  and  Description  of  the  Horse,  Mule,  Cattle, 

Sheep,  Swine,  Poultry  and  Farm  Dogs,  with  Directions  for  their  Management,  Breeding, 
Crossing,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  Preparation  for  a  Profitable  Market  ;  also,  their 
Diseases  and  Remedies,  together  with  full  Directions  for  the  Management  of  the  Dairy, 
and  the  comparative  Economy  and  Advantages  of  Working  Animals, — the  Horse,  Mule, 
O.xen,  &c. 

ALLEN'S  (L.  F.)  RURAL  ARCHITECTURE, 1  25 

Being  a  Ccmplete  Description  of  Farm  Houses,  Cottages  and 

Out  Buildings,  comprising  Wood  Houses,  Worksho]  s,  Tool  Houses,  Carriage  and  Wagon 
Houses,  Stables,  Smoke  and  Ash  Houses,  Ice  Houses,  Apiaries  or  Bee  Houses,  Poultry 
Houses,  Rabbitry,  Dovecote,  Piggery,  Barns  and  Sheds  for  Cattle,  &c.,  &c.  ;  together 
with  Lawns,  Pleasure  Grounds  and  Parks  ;  the  Flower,  Fruit  and  Vegetabio  Garden  ; 
also,  the  best  method  of  conducting  water  into  Cattle  Yar.ls  and  Houses.  Beautifully 
illustrated. 

ALLEN  (J.  FISK)  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  GRAPE,      -      -      1  00 

A  Practical  Tre.^tise  on  the  Culture  and  Tre-^tment  of  ths 

Grape  Vine,  embracing  its  History,  with  Directions  for  its  Treatment  in  tho  United 
States  of  America,  in  the  Open  Air  and  under  Glass  Structures,  with  and  without 
Artificial  Heat 

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LXEBICAS  AECHITECT, 6  00 

CoiiPRisixG  Origi.val  Design's  of  Cheap  Cocxtry  axd  Villagb 

Residenc -s.  w.th  Details,  Sp  citicalioDS,  f.-.vjs  aa  J  Direclions,  and  an  Estimate  of  the  Cost 
of  eacU  LKsii,"^.  Bv  Joh-X  W.  Pjtch,  ArcLiitecl.  First  aad  Second  Series,  4to,  bound  in 
1  vol. 

AMERICAN  FiaRIST'S  GXTTDE, 75 

Comprising   the  American  Rose  Ccxtcrist,  a_nd   Evert   Imdy 

her  own  Flower  Gardener. 

ASBY'S  FBUrr  GAEDEN, 1  25 

A  Treatise,  Intended  to  Explain  axd  Illustrate  the  Physi- 

ology  of  Fruit  Trees,  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  all  Operations  connected  with  the 
Propagation,  Transplanting,  Pruning  and  Training  of  Orchard  and  Garden  Trees,  aa 
Standards.  Dwarfs,  Pyramids,  Espalier,  &c.  The  Laying  out  and  Arranging  different 
kinds  of  Orchards  and  Gardens,  the  selection  of  suitable  varieties  for  different  purposes 
and  localities,  Gathering  and  Preserving  Fruits,  Treatment  of  Diseases,  Destruction  of 
Insects,  Descr-.ptiou  and  I'ses  of  luiplfrei'iit?.  kc.  Illustrated  with  upwards  of  150 
Figures.     By  P.  B.uirt,  of  the  Mount  Hope  Xu.-serips,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

BEMENTS  (C.  N.)  BABBIT  FANCIER, 50 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeding.  Rearing,  Feeding  and  General 

Management  DiRibbits,  with  Remarks  if)-!!!  their  Diseases  and  Remedies,  to  which  are 
added  Full  DiTL-ctious  for  the  Constructiou  ..f  iliteh -s,  Rabbitries,  &c.,  together  with 

Recipe.s  f'lr  Cooking  and  DreSSiug  to.-  tli._'  f.ii/ie.     B-autifuUy  illustrated. 

BLAKE'S  (REV.  JOHN  L.)  FARMER  AT  HOME,      -      -      -      -      1  25 

A    Family  Text  Book    fox  the    Country  ;  beio?  a  Cyclopedia 

of  Agricultural  ImpIem-.-nts  and  I'roJ-ictiou.s,  and  of  the  more  important  t'^>pics  in 
Domestic  Economy,  Science  and  Literature,  a.Iapted  to  Rural  Life.  By  Rev.  Ioh.v  ],. 
Blake,  D.  D.  ' 

BOUSSINGATJLT'S  (J.  B.)  RURAL  ECONOMY, 1  25 

Or,  Chemistry  Applied  to  Agriculture  ;  presenting  Distlnctly 

and  in  a  Simple  Manner  the  l'riucip!<-s  of  Farm  Mauaicoracui,  the  Preservation  aud  Use  of 
Manures,  the  Nutrition  and  Fool  of  Auimils,  aud  the  Genera!  Economy  of  Agriculture. 
The  work  is  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  of  stuily  aud  experiment,  an  i  its  perusal  will  aid  the 
farmer  greatly  iu  obtaining  a  practical  an  1  scicntitic  knowk-  L'e  o!  his  profession. 

BBOWNE'S  AMERICAN  BIRD  FANCIER, 25 

The    BRf:EDiNG,  Rearing,  Feeding,  Management   and   Peculi- 

arities  of  Cage  aud  H.'use  B.r  Is.     Iikistratjd  with  engravings. 

BROWNE'S  AMERICAN  POITLTRY  YARD, 1  GO 

Comprising    the    Origin,    History  and    Description    of    thb 

Different  Breeds  of  D<5mestic  Poultry,  with  Cotnplcte  Directions  for  their  Breeding, 
Crossing,  Rearing,  Fattening  and  Preparation  lor  Market  ;  including  si)ecific  directions 
for  Capouizing  Fowls,  and  for  the  Treatment  of  the  Principal  Diseases  to  which  they  are 
subject,  drawn  from  authentic  sources  and  p>irsonal  observation.  Illustrated  witb 
numerous  engravings. 

BROWNE' S  (D.  JAY)  FIELD  BOOK  OF  MANURES,     -       -      -      -       1  25 
Or,  American  Muck  Book  ;  Treating  of  the  Nature,  Properties, 

Sources.  History  and  0peratio;;s  of  all  the  Principal  Fertilizers  and  Manures  in  Common 
Use,  with  specific  directions  lor  their  Preservation  and  .\pplicatioa  to  the  Soil  and  to 
Crops  :  drawn  from  authontii^  sources,  actual  exp'rienco  and  person.al  observation,  as 
combined  with  the  Leading  Principles  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Agriculture. 

BRrDGEMANS  (THOS.)  YOUNG  GARDENER'S  ASSBTANT,    -      -      1  60 

In  Three  Parts  ;  Containing  Catalogues  of  Garden  aud  Flower 

Seed,  with  Prajttal  Directions  under  each  head  for  the  Caitivatioa  of  Cu  nary  Vege- 
tables, Flowers,  Fruit  Trees,  the  Grape  Vine,  kc.  ;  to  which  is  added  a  Calendar  to  each 
part,  showing  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  various  departments  each  inoulb 
of  the  year.     One  volume  octavo. 

BRTDGEMANS  KITCHEN  GARDENER'S  INSTRUCTOR,  H  Cloth,       60 

•'  •«  "  "  (loth.       60 

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BRIDGEMAN'S  FLORIST'S  GUIDE,  .....      >i  Ooth,      60 

"  "  " Cloth.       60 

BRIDGEMAN'S  FRUIT  CULTIVATOR'S  MAJfUAL,     -       -       y»  Cloth,       50 
"  "  '  "  .        .  Cloth,        60 

BRECK'S  BOOK  OF  FLOWERS, 1  00 

Ix  WHICH  ARE  Described  all  the  VAitictrs  Hardy  Herbaceous 

Perennials,  Annuals,  Shrubs,  Plants  and  Evergreen  Trees,  with  Directions  lor  thoir 
Cultivation. 

BUIST'S  (ROBERT)  AMERICAN  FLOWER  GARDEN  DIRECTORY,       1  26 

Containing  Practical  Directions  for  the  Culture  of  Plants, 

in  the  Flower  Garden,  Hothouse,  Greenhouse,  Rooms  or  Parlor  Windows,  for  every 
month  in  the  Year  ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Plants  most  desirable  in  each,  the  nature 
-  of  the  Soil  and  situation  best  adapted  to  their  Growth,  the  Proper  Season  for  Trans- 
planting, &c.  ;  with  Instructions  for  erecting  a  Hothouse,  Greenhonse,  and  Laying  out 
a  Flower  Garden  ;  the  whole  adapted  to  either  Large  or  Small  Gardens,  with  Instruc- 
tions for  Preparing  the  Soil,  Propagating,  Planting,  Pruning,  Training  and  Fruiting  the 
Grape  Vine. 

BUIsrS  (ROBERT)  FAMILY  KITCHEN  GARDENER,      ...  75 

Containing    Plain   and    Accurate    Descriptions  of    all  the 

Different  Species  and  Varieties  of  Culinary  Vegetables,  with  their  Botanical,  English, 
French  and  German  names,  alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  Best  Mode  of  Cultivat- 
ing them  in  the  Garden  or  under  Glass  ;  also  Descriptions  and  Cliaracter  of  the  most 
Select  Fruits,  their  Management,  Propagation,  &c.  By  Robert  Buist,  author  of  the 
"American  Flower  Garden  Directory,"  kc. 

CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE  AND  SUGAR-MAKING,       ....  25 

Its  History,  Culture  and  Adaptation  to  the  Soil,  Climate, 

and  Economy  of  the  United  States,  with  an  Account  of  Various  Processes  of  Manu- 
facturing Sugar.  Drawn  from  authentic  sources,  by  Charus  F.  Staxsbcrt,  A.  M.,  late 
Commissiouer  at  the  Exhibition  of  all  Nations  at  I/iudon. 

CHORLTON'S  GRAPE-GROWER'S  GUIDE, 60 

Intended    Especially   for   the  American  Climate.      Being  a 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine  in  each  department  of  Hot- 
house, Cold  Grapery,  Retarding  House  and  Out-door  Culture.  With  Plans  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Requisite  Buildings,  and  giving  the  best  methods  for  Heating  the  same. 
Every  department  being  fully  illustrated.     By  William  Chorlton. 

COBBETT'S  AMERICAN  GARDENER, 50 

A  Treatise  on  the  Situation,  Soil  and  Laying-out  of  Gardens, 

and  the  Making  an  1  Managing  of  Hotbeds  and  Greenhouses,  and  on  the  Propagation 
and  Cultivation  of  the  several  sorts  of  Vegetables,  Herl>s,  Fruits  and  Flowers. 

COTTAGE  AND  FARM  BEE-KEEPER, 50 

A  Practical  Work,  by  a  Counti-y  Curate. 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  FRUIT  BOOK, 50 

Containing  Directions  for  Raising,  Propagating  and  Manao- 

ing  Fruit  Trees,  Shrubs  aud  Plants  ;  with  a  Description  of  the  Best  Varieties  of  Fruit, 
incln.liii-  New  and  Valuable  Kinds. 

COLE'S  AMERICAN  VETERINARIAN, 50 

Containing  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals,  their  Causes,  Symp- 

tom>  and  Reme.lies  ;  with  Rules  for  Restoring  and  Preserving  Health  by  good  managi.v 

m.'iil  :  .I'.so  for  TrainiJig  and  Breediiig. 

DADDS  AMERICAN  CATTLE  DOCTOR, 1  00 

Containing  the  Necessary   Information  for   Preserving  the 

Health  and  Curing  the  Diseases  ol  Oxen,  Cows,  Sheep  and  Swine,  with  a  Great  Variety 
ofOrigi'.iul  R  ■ciiies  a:i  I  V.iluable  Information  in  reference  to  Farm  and  Dairy  Manage- 
ment, wliereljy  every  Man  cm  be  his  own  Cattle  Doctor.  Tlie  principles  taught  m  this 
work  are,  th.at  all  Medication  shall  be  sub.servient  to  Nature — that  all  Medicines  must  be 
sanative  in  their  operation,  and  administered  with  a  view  of  aiding  the  viuil  powers, 
Instead  of  depressing,  as  herefc/fore,  with  the  lancet  or  by  poison.  By  G.  II.  Dai>d,  M.  1> 
Veterinary  practitioner. 

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DADD'S  MODEBN  HOSSE  DOCTOB, 1  00 

An  American  Book  for  American  Farmers  ;  Containing  Practi« 

cal  Observations  on  the  Causes,  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Disease  and  Lameness  of 
Horses,  embracing  the  Most  Recent  and  Approved  Methods,  according  to  an  euhghtened 
system  of  Veterinary  Practice,  for  the  Preservation  and  Restoration  of  Health.  With 
illustrations. 

DADD'S  ANATOMT  AND  FH7SI0LO6T  OF  THE  HOBSE,  Plain,    .       2  00 
"  "  "  '•  '*  Colored  Plates,    4  00 

"With  Anatomical  and  Questional  Illustritions  ;  Containing, 

also,  a  Scries  of  Examinations  on  Equine  Anatomy  and  Philosophy,  with  Instructions  in 
reference  to  Dissection  and  the  mode  of  making  Anatomical  Preparations  ;  to  which  is 
added  a  Glossary  of  Veterinary  Technicalities,  Tosicological  Chart,  and  Dictionary  of 
Veterinary  Science. 

DANA'S  UTJCK  MANUAL,  FOB  THE  XTSE  OF  FABHEBS,      .      .      1  00' 

A  Treatise  on  the  Physical  .*nd  Chemical  Properties  of  Soils 

an  1  Cl)f^mi-try  of  Manures  :  including,  also,  the  subject  of  Composts,  Artificial  Manures 
and  Irrigailiia.     A  new  edition,  with  a  Chapter  on  Bones  and  Superphosphates. 

DANA'S  FBIZE  ESSAY  ON  MANUBES 36 

Subm:tted  to  the  Trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  fob 

Promoting  Agriculture,  for  their  Premium.     By  SAimx  H.  Dasa. 
DOMESTIC  AND  OBNAMENTAL  POULTEY,  Plain  Plates,    .       .       .       1  00 
"  "  "  Colored  Plates,         .       -      2  00 

A  Treatise  on  the  History  and  Management  of  Ornamental 

and  Domestic  Poultrj-.  By  Rev.  EoMrxn  .^^Atn  Dixox,  .\.  M.,  with  large  additions  by 
J.  J.  Kerr,  M.  D.  Illustrated  with  sixty-five  Original  Portraits,  engraved  expressly  for 
this  work.     Fourth  edition,  revised. 

DOWNINGS  (A.  J.)  LANDSCAPE  GABDENING, 3  50 

Revised,  Enlarged  and  Xewly  Illustrated,  by  Henry  "Win- 

throp  Sargent.  This  Great  Work,  which  h:is  accomplished  so  much  in  elevating  the 
•American  TiiSle  for  Rural  Improvements,  is  now  rendered  doubly  interesting  and 
valuable  by  the  experience  of  all  the  Prominent  Cultivators  of  Ornamental  Trees  in  the 
United  States,  and  by  the  descriptions  of  American  Places,  Private  Residences,  Central 
Park,  New  York,  Llewellyn  Park,  New  Jersey,  and  a  full  account  of  the  Newer  Decidu- 
ous and  Evergreen  Trees  and  Shrubs.  The  illustratinns  of  this  edition  consist  of  ieeen 
superb  steel  plate  eitgravings,  by  Sjdlue,  Hi.vshklwood,  Dcthik  and  others  ;  besides  <me 
hundred  engravings  on  voood  and  stone,  of  the  best  -American  Residences  and  Parks,  witll 
Portraits  of  many  New  or  Remarkable  Trees  and  Shrubs. 

DOWNING'S  (A.  J.)  BUBAL  ESSAYS, 3  00 

On  PIorticcxtlre,  Landscape  Gardening, Rural  Architeoture, 

Trees,  Agnctilturc,  Frnit.  with  his  Letters  from  England.  Edited,  with  a  Memoir  of  the 
Author,  by  Ge3RGE  Wm.  Ci-rtis,  and  a  Letter  to  his  Friends,  by  Frederika  Brevier,  and 
an  elegant  Steel  Portrait  of  the  Author. 

EASTWOOD  (B.)  ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CBANBEBBY,  50 

With  a  Description  of  the  Best  Varieties.     By  B.  Eastwood, 

"  Septim  IS,"  of  the  New  York  Tribune.     Illustratei>. 
ELLIOTT'S  WESTERN  FBUTT  BOOB, 1  85 

A  Xew  Edition  of  this  "Work,  Thoroughly  Revised.  Em- 
bracing all  the  New  and  Valuable  Fruits,  with  the  Latest  Improvements  in  their  Cultiva- 
tion, up  to  January,  1.S59.  especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  Western  Fruit  Growers  ; 
full  of  excellent  illustrations.  By  F.  R.  Eluott,  Pomologist,  late  of  Oeveland,  Ohio,  now 
of  St.  Lonts. 

BVEBY  LADY  HEB  OWN  FLOWEB  GABDENEB,     ....  50 

Addressed  to  the  Industrious  and  Economical  dnly  ;  containing 

simple  and  practical  Directions  for  Cultivating  Plants  and  Flowers  :  also.  Hints  for  the 
Management  of  Flowers  in  Rooms,  with  brief  Botanical  Descriptions  of  Plants  aod 
Flowers.    The  whole  in  plain  and  simple  language.    By  LotnsA  Johxsos. 

Mailed  po^  paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


Boohs  published  by  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  5 

FASM  DEAINAGE, 1  qq 

The   Principles,   Processes  and  Effects  of   Draining  Land 

with  Sttmes,  Wood,  Drain-plows,  Opon  Ditches,  aad  especially  with  Tiles  ;  including 
T.ibles  of  Rainrall,  Evaporation  Filtration,  Excavation,  capacity  of  Pipes,  cost  and  num- 
ber to  the  acre.  With  more  than  100  illustrations.  Bv  the  Hon.  Henry  F.  French  of 
New  Hampshire.  "  '^-•>y.a,  ui 

FESSENDEN'S  (T.  G.)  AMEKICAN  KITCHEN  GAEDENEB,    -      -         50 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Cultivation  of  Vegetabi  es  and 

(Guidon  Fruits.     Cloth. 

FESSENDEN'S  COMPLETE  FARMER  AND  AMERICAN  GARDENER,    1  25 

Rural  EconoxMist  and  New  American  Gardener  ;    Containing 

a  Compeadious  Epitome  of  the  most  Important  Branches  of  Agriculture  and  Rural 
hcoiiumy  ;  with  Practical  Directions  on  the  Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  includ- 
ing,' Landscape  and  Ornamental  Gardening.     By  Tuomas  G.  Fessenden.     2  vols,  in  1. 

FIELD'S  PEAR  CULTURE, 1  00 

The    Pear    Garden  ;    or,  a    Treatise  on  the  Propagation  and 

Cultivation  of  the  Pear  Tree,  with  Instructions  for  its  Management  from  the  Seeillin<;  to 
the  Bearing  Tree.     By  Thomas  W.  Field. 

FISH  CULTURE, 100 

A  Treatise  on  the  Artificial  Propagation  op  Fish,  and  the 

Construction  of  Ponds,  with  the  Description  and  Habits  of  such  kinds  of  Fish  as  are  most 
suitable  for  Pisciculture.  By  IBeodatus  Gahuck,  M.  D.,  Vice-President  of  the  Cleveland 
Academy  of  Nat.  Science. 

FLINT  ON  GRASSES, 1  26 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  ;  Com- 
prising their  Natural  History,  Comparative  Nutritive  Value,  Methods  of  Cultivation,  Cut- 
ting, Curing  and  the  Management  of  Grass  I^nds.  By  Ch-irles  L.  Fllnt,  A.  M  Sucre, 
tary  of  the  Mass.  Stale  Board  of  Agriculture. 

GUENON  ON  MILCH  COWS, 60 

A  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows,  whereby  the  Quality  and  Quantity  of 

Milk  which  any  Cow  will  give  may  bo  accurately  determined  by  observing  Natural 
Marks  or  External  Indications  alone  ;  the  length  of  time  she  will  continue  to  give  Milk, 
&c.,  &c.  By  M.  Francis  Guenon,  of  Libourne,  France.  Translated  by  Nictolas  P. 
Tri.st,  Esq.  ;  with  Introduction,  Remarks  and  Observations  on  the  Cow  and  the  Dairy, 
by  John-  S.  Skinner.  Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.  Neatly  done  up  in  paper 
covers,  37  cts. 

HERBERT'S  HINTS  TO  HORSE-KEEPERS, 1  25 

Complete  Manual  for  Horsemen  ;  Embracing  : 

How  TO  Breed  a  Hok.se.  How  to  Physio  a  Horse. 

How  TO  Buy  a  Horse.  (Aixopatoy  and  HoMCEOPATHr 

How  to  Break  a  Horse.  How  to  Groom  a  Horse. 

How  TO  Use  a  Hor.se.  How  to  Dri\-e  a  Hor.«e. 

How  to  Feed  a  Horse.  How  to  Ride  a  Hor.se. 

And  Chapters  on  Mules  and  Ponies.  By  the  late  Hexky  Wiluam  Herrert  (Fraxk 
Forrester)  ;  with  additions,  including  Rarey's  Mcthod  of  Horse  Tami.vg,  and  Baucher's 
.'vsTEM  OF  HoR-^KiUNssup  ;  ulso,  giving  directions  for  the  Selection  and  Care  of  Carriages 
.vi !  Harness  of  every  description,  from  the  City  "  Turn  Out"  to  the  Farmer's  '•  Gear," 
H.il  a  Bio,'raphy  of  the  eccentric  Author.     Illustrated  throughout. 

HOOPER'S  DOG  AND  GUN, 50 

A  Few    Loose  Chaptkrs    on  Shooting,   among  which   will   bo 

found  some  Anecdotes  and  Incidents  ;  also  Instructions  for  Dog  Breaking,  and  interest- 
ing h'tler'i  from  Sportsmen.     Dy  A  Bad  Shot. 

HYDE'S  CHINESE  SUGAR  CANE, 26 

Containing  its    History,  Mode  op  Culture,  Manupacture   Of- 

the  Sugar,  &x?.  ;  with  Reports  of  its  success  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Mailed  pout  paid  vpmi  rceipi  of  pricf. 


6  Boohs  puhh'shcd  h/  C.  '^^.  Saxtov.  Barker  &  Co. 

JOHNSTON'S  (JAMES  F.  W.)  AGRICULTUEAL  CHEMISTRli,        -      1  26 

Lectup'^s   ox  the  Application*  of  Chemistry  axd  Geology  to 

Ag-icuiiure.  X'-w  Ediiiciii,  w.tU  uu  AppeU'lix.  co:ituiiiir,g  the  Author's  Experimuuts  in 
Practical  Asriciilwre. 

JOHNSTON'S  (J  F.  W.)  ELEMENTS  OF  AGEICIILTUEAl  CHEM- 

ISTEY  AND  GEOLOGY, 1  00 

With  a  Complete  Axalyticaj,  axd  Alphabetical  Ixdex,  and  an 

American  Preface.     Bj'  Hon.  Suiox  Browx,  Editor  of  the  '■  New  England  Farmer." 

JOHNSTON'S  (J.  F.  W.)  CATECHISM  OF  AGEICULTUSAL  CHEM- 

ISTBY  AND  GEOLOGY, 25 

By    James    F.  W.  Johxston,  Honorary   Member  of  the  Eoyal 

Agricultural  Society  of  England,  and  author  of  "  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Geoloiry."  With  an  Introduction  by  Johs  Pmos  Nortox,  M.  A.,  late  Professor  of 
Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  the  Author,  pre- 
pared expressly  for  this  edition,  and  an  Appendix  compiled  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Education  in  Nova  Scotia.     Adapted  to  the  use  of  Schools. 

LANGSTKOTH  (BEY.  L.  L.)  ON  THE  HIVE  AND  HONEY  BEE,    -      1  25 

A  Practical  Treatise  ox  the   Hive   axd   Hoxey  Bee,  Third 

edition,  enlarged  and  illuslraled  mtk  numerous  engravings..  This  Work  is,  without  a 
doubt,  the  best  work  on  the  Bee  published  in  any  language,  whether  we  consider  its 
scientific  accuracy,  the  practical  instructions  it  contains,  or  the  beauty  and  completeness 
of  its  illustrations. 

LETJCHABS'  HOW  TO  BUILD  AND  VENTILATE  HOTHOUSES,     •      1  25 

A   Practical   Treatise   ox    the    Coxstrcctiox,  Heatixg   axd 

Ventilation  of  Hothouses,  including  Conservatories,  Greenhouses.  Graperies  and  other 
kinds  of  Horticultural  Structures  ;  with  Practical  Directions  for  their  Management,  in 
regard  to  Light,  Heat  and  Air.  Illustrated  with  numerous  eDgravings.  By  P.  B. 
Lecchajis,  Garden  Architect. 

LIEBIG'S  (JUSTUS)  FAMILIAB  LECTUEES  ON  CHEMISTEY,        -         60 

Axd  its  relatiox  to  Commerce,  Physiology,  and  Agriculture. 

Edited  by  JoHX  G.^rdexer,  il.  D., 

UNSLEY'S  MOBGAN  HOBSES, 1  00 

A  Premium  Essay  ox  the  Origix,  History,  and  Characteristics 

of  this  remarkable  American  Breed  of  Horses  :  tracing  the  Pedigree  from  the  original 
Justin  Morgan,  through  the  most  noted  of  his  progeny,  down  to  the  present  time. 
With  numerous  portraits.  To  which  are  added  Hints  for  Breeding,  Breaking  aad  Gene- 
ral Use  and  Management  of  Horses,  with  practical  Directions  for  Training  them  for 
Exhibition  at  Agricultural  Fairs.  By  D.  C.  Lixslet,  Editor  of  the  American  Stock 
Journal. 

KOOBE'S  BUBAL  HAND  BOOKS, 1  25 

First  Series,  containing  Treatises  on — 
TiiE  Horse,  The  Pists  of  the  Farm, 

The  Hog,  Dojnamc  Fowis,  and 

The  Hoset  Bee,  The  Cow. 

Second  Series,  containing —  .        -        .        .  i  25 

E\THT  Ladt  her  owx  Flower  Gahdexer,    Essay  ox  Maitores, 

•^LEMETIS  OF  AGEICrLlXTtE,  AjtERICAX  KrrCHEX  GARDEXKR, 

Bird  Faxcler,  Americax  Rose  Ccixtrist. 

Third  Series,  containing — 1  25 

IDLES  OX  THE  Horse's  Foot,  Vixe-Dreser's  JIaxtax, 

Thb  RABBrr  F-ixcier,  Bee-Keeper"s  Chart, 

Weeks  ox  Bees,  Chejiistrt  Made  East. 

Fourth  Sfries,  containing —       -  ...  1  26 

P^isoz  ox  the  Vixe,  Hooper's  Dog  axd  Gux, 

LnsiG'.s  Fasuliar  Lettep_s,  Skiilfcl  Housewifk, 

Browxe'8  Memoirs  of  Ixdiav  Corji. 

_£  Mailed  post  paid  upon  rM'npt  of  price. 


Books  published  hij  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 

MINES'S  BEE-KEEPER'S  MANTJAL,        ....  -      -      1  00 

JJeixo,    a    I'ltAcricAL  Tkkatise   on    the    IlisTORy  AND  Domestic 

Fcoiminy  i,!'  111.'  lldiicy  li.'c,  oiiiljruciiig  a  Full  Illustration  of  the  whole  subject,  with 
the  Jlost  Appriivi'il  iktlioils  of  Managing  this  Insect,  through  every  branch  of  its 
Oilturc  ;  tho  result  of  many  years"  experience.  Illustrated  with  many  engravinea 
By  T.  B.  JLi.NKit.  J        t,  b 

MUES  ON  THE  HORSE'S  FOOT  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  IT  SOUND,         60 

With  Cuts,  Illustrating  the  Anatomy  of  the  Foot,  and  contain- 
ing valuable  Hints  on  Shoeing  and  Stable  Management,  in  Health  and  in  Disease.     By 

\Vm.  MilJES. 

MUBTJRN  ON   THE  COW  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,    ...         26 

By  M.  M.  MiLBURN,  and  revised  by  H.  D.  Richardson  and  Ambrose 

SxE'i'Kxs.     With  illustrations. 

MUNN'S  (B.)  PRACTICAL  LAND  DRAINER, 50 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draining  Land,  in  which  the  Most  Ap- 
proved Systems  of  Drainage  are  lixplaineil,  and  their  Differences  and  Coraparativo 
Merits  Discussed  ;  with  full  Directions  for  the  Cutting  and  Making  of  Drains,  with 
Remarks  upon  the  various  materials  of  which  they  may  be  constructed.  With  many 
illustrations.     By  B.  MrxN,  Lunlscape  Gardener. 

NASH'S  (J.  A.)  PROGRESSIVE  FARMER,     ---.*..         60 

A  Scientific  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  the  Ge- 

ulogy  of  Agriculture,  on  I'lauls  and  Ajnimal?,  Manures  and  Soils,  applied  to  Practical 
Agriculture  ;  with  a  Catechism  of  .ScicntiHcand  I'ractical  Agriculture.     By  J.  A.  N.4SH. 

NEILL'S  PRACTICAL  FRUIT,  FLOWER  AND  KITCHEN  GARDEN- 
ER'S COMPANION, 1  00 

With  a  Calendar.     By  Patrick  Neill,  Secretary  of  the  Royal 

Caledonian  Horticultural  Society.  Adapted  to  the  United  States  from  the  fourth 
edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  Author.  Edited  by  (J.  Emkr^ox,  M.  H.,  Ivlitor  of 
'  The  American  Farmer's  Encyclopedia."  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  \\.  (i.  I'.tRDEB, 
author  of  "  Manual  of  the  Strawberry  Culture."     With  illustrations. 

NORTON'S  (JOHN  P.)  ELEMENTS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE,        60 

Or,  the  Connection  between  Science  and  the  Art  of  Practical 

Farming.  Prize  Essay  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  .Societv.  By  .Joii.v  P.  Nor- 
ton, M.  A.,  Professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  Adapted  to  the  use  of 
Schools. 

OLCOTT'S  SORGHO  AND  IMPHEE,  THE  CHINESE  AND  AFRICAN 

SUGAR  CANES, 1  00 

A  Complete  Treatise  upon  their  Origin  and  Varieties,  Culture  ' 

and  Uses,  their  value  as  a  Forage  Crop,  and  Directions  for  making  Sugar,  Molasses, 
Alcohol,  Sparkling  and  Still  Wines,  Beer,  Ciiler,  Vinegar,  Paper,  Starch  and  Dye  Stuffs. 
Fully  illustrated  with  Drawings  of  Approved  Machinery  ;  with  an  Appendix  bv  I.eo.nard 
Wrav,  of  Caffraria,  and  a  Description  of  his  Patented  Process  of  CrvsUUIizuig"  the  Juio 
of  the  Imphee  ;  with  the  Uitest  American  Experiments.     By  Hexry  S.  OLCon. 

PARDEE  (R.  G.)  ON  STRAWBERRY  CULTURE, 60 

A  Complete  Manual  for  the  Cultivation  of  the  Strawberry  ; 

wiUi  a  Description  of  the  Best  Varieties. 

Also  notices  of  tlie  Raspberry,  Blackberry,  Currant,  Goosi-berry  am!  Crape;  with 
Directions  for  their  Cultivali(Ui,  and  the  Selection  of  the  Best  Varieties'.  "  Fverv  process 
here  recommended  has  been  proved,  the  plans  of  others  tried,  and  the  result  is  hero 
given."  With  a  Valuable  Appendix,  containing  the  observations  ,-ind  experience  of  some 
of  the  most  sucees.<ful  cultivators  of  these  fruits  in  our  country. 

PEDDERS'  (JAMES)  FARMERS'  LAND  MEASURER,  ....         5C 

Or  Pocket  Companion  ;  Showing:  at  one  view  the  Contents  of 
any  Piece  of  l>ind,  itixa  Dimensions  taken  in  Yards.  With  a  Set  of  Useful  Agricultural 
TabV« 


Mailed  post  paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


8  Booiks  published  by  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 

PEESOZ'  CULTUEE  OF  THE  VTKTE, 26 

A  Xk«'  Process  for  the  Cl'ltuee  of  the  Vine,  by  Persoz,  Pro- 
fessor of  t'l  •  Tac  ilty  ul'  S-i  -ic  i<  ijf  Strxsboarg  ;  [liro'ctiiig  Professor  of  the  School  of  I'liar- 
macy  of  the  same  city.    Tiiiuslated  by  J.  O'C.  Bakclat,  Surgeon  U.  S.  X. 

PHELPS'  BEE  KEXFEE'S  CHABT, 25 

Being  a  Brief  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Instin'Ct,  Habits  and 

Maiiiufcmout  of  thi;  Hoaev  Bc-e,  iu  all  its  various  branches,  the  result  of  mauy  years' 
practical  experience,  whereby  the  author  has  been  enabled  to  -livest  the  subject  of 
much  that  has  been  considered  mysterious  and  difficu!'-  to  overcome,  and  render  it 
more  sure,  profitable  and  interesting  to  evciv  one,  than  it  has  heretofore  been.     V.\-  E. 

W.  niEUV. 

QTTINBT'S  MTSTEBIES  OE  BZE-EXEFINa  EXPLAINED,        •      -      1  00 
Being  a  Complete  Analysis  of  the  Whole  Subject,  Consistiiij^ 

of  the  Natural  History  of  Bees  ;  Directions  for  obtaining  the  Greatest  Amount  of  Pure 
Surjilus  Honey  with  the  least  possible  expense  ;  Remedies  for  Losses  Given,  and  tiia 
Science  of  Luck  fully  illustrated  ;  the  result  of  more  than  twenty  years'  experience  lu 
extensive  Apiaries.     By  M.  Qdtn-bt. 

EANDALL'S  (H.  S.)  SHSEP  HXTSBAITDSY, 1  25 

With  an  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds,  and  general  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Management,  Breeding  and  the  Treatment  of 
Diseases,  with  Portraits  and  other  engravings.     By  Hejtry  S.  RljiBAix. 

EEEMELIN'S  (CHAS.)  VINE  DRESSEB'S  MANUAL,        ...         50 

An    Illustrated    Treatise  on  Vineyards  and   Wine-Making, 

containing  full  Instructions  as  to  Location  and  Soil,  Preparation  of  Ground,  Selection  and 
Propagation  of  Vines,  the  Treatment  of  Young  Vineyards,  Trimming  and  'Rainiag  the 
Vines,  Manures  and  the  Making  of  Wine. 

SICHABOSON  ON  HOGS, 25 

Their  Origin,  Varieties  and  Management,  with  a  View  to  Profit 

and  Treatment  under  Disease  ;  also,  plain  Directions  relative  to  the  Most  Approved 
Modes  of  Preserving  their  Flesh.  By  H.  D.  Richardsox,  author  of  "  The  Hive  and  the 
Honey  Bee,"  &c.,  ic.     With  illustrations. 

EICHAEDSON  ON  THE  HIVE  AND  THE  HONEY  BEE,  -      -      .         25 
With  Plain  Directions  for  Obtaining  a  Considerable  Annual 

Income  from  this  branch  of  Rural  Economy  ;  also,  an  Account  of  the  Diseases  of  Bees 
and  their  Remedies,  and  Remarks  as  to  their  Enemies,  and  the  best  mode  of  protecting 
the  Hives  from  thc'ir  attacks.     By  H.  D.  Richardsox.     With  illustrations. 

BICHABDSON  ON  DOMESTIC  FOWLS, 25 

Their    Natur.ai.    History,   Breeding,  Rearing,  and  Gener.u 

Management.    By  H.  D.  RicaARDS0\.     With  illustrations. 
BICHABDSON  ON  THE  HOBSE, 25 

Their  Origin  and  Varieties  ;  with  Plain  Directions  as  to  the 

Breeding,  Rearing  and  General  .MaMnpemeiit.  with  Instructions  as  to  the  Treatmc:jt  of 
Disease.    Handsomely  illustrated.     By  H.  D.  Ri-THARnsox. 

BICHABDSON  ON  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FABM,        ....         25 

With    Instructions  for  their  Extirpation  ;  being  a  Manual  of 

Plain  Iiirocf.ons  for  the  C-rtain  Destruction  of  every  description  of  Vermin.  W,ih 
num  -rous  i!liistralion~  on  Wool 

BICHABDSON  ON  DOGS ;  THEIB  OBIGIN  AND  VABIETIES,       -         50 

Directions  as  to  their  General  Management.     With  nnnjprim.s 

Oripinal  Anecdotes.    Also,  Complete  Instructions  as  to  Treatment  under  Disease.     P..\  11. 
D.  RiciiARnsoN.     Illustrated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 
This  IS  not  only  a  chvap,  but  one  of  the  best  works  ever  published  on  the  Dog. 

SCHENCK'S  GABDENEB'S  TEXT  BOOK,        .  * 50 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Formation   and   Management 

of  tb«  Kitchen  Garden,  the  Culture  and  Use  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Medicinal  Hsrb» 
Mailed  po^f  paid  iipon  receipt  of  price. 


Hooks  rmblished  hy  0.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  "^ 

SHEPHERD'S  OWN  BOOK, 2c0 

AVnii  AX  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds,  Diseases  and  Ma<;- 

aKciii.'ul  of  ^heep,  and  Gouural  i)ircctious  in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Mauagemo  it, 
Rroeding  and  the  Treatment  of  Diseases  ;  with  illustrative  engravings  by  Yoi"at»  & 
Raxdali.  ;  embracing  Skinner's  Notes  on  the  Breed  and  Management  of  Sheep  in  -'.o 
Uii;Il-i1  Stales,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool. 

STEWART'S  STABLE  BOOK, 1  00 

A  Treatise  ox  the  Management  of   Horses,  in  Relation  to 

Pt.il>:i!ig,  (iroomiug,  Feeding,  Watering  and  Working,  Construction  of  Stables,  Ventila- 
ti'>i,  A;i,i.'ndagi*s  of  Stables,  Management  of  the  Feet,  and  of  Diseased  and  I'efective 
Hiss.  Dy  John  Stewart,  Veterinary  Surgeon.  With  Notes  aad  Additions,  adapting 
it  Ui  .^mericf  u  Food  and  Climate.     By  A.  B.  Allen,  Editor  of  the  American  Agriculturist. 

STRAY  LEAVES  FROM  THE  BOOK  OF  NATURE,     -      -      -      -      1  00 

By    ^[.  yciiELE    De  Vere,   of  the   University  of  Yirginia. 

Co.TTE.VTS  :   I.    O.VLY  A  PEBBLE. 

n.  Natcre  in  Motio.v. 
in.  The  Ocean  and  rrs  Lob. 
IV.  A  Chat  about  Plants. 

V.  Younger  Years  of  a  PijlNX, 
VI.  Later  Years  of  a  Plant. 
VU.  PI.ANT  llntmES. 

Vm.   U.VKNOWN  TO.VGUES. 

IX.  A  Trip  to  the  Moon. 

STEPHENS'  (HENRY)  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM, 4  00 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Farmer,  Steward,  Plowman,  Cattle- 

m.Vi.--l]>'i'hi'i-i1,  Field  Worker  asd  Dairy  Maid.  By  Henry  Stephens.  With  Four  Hun- 
dri'l  and  Fil'ty  illustrations  ;  to  which  are  added  Explanatory  Notes,  Remarks,  &c.,  by 
J.  S.  Sklvxkr.     Really  ona  of  the  best  books  a  farmer  can  possess. 

SKILLFUL  HOUSEWIFE, 50 

Or  Complete  Guide  to  Domestic  Cookery,  Tastf^  Comfort,  and 

Eco'.iomy,  embracing  653  Recipes  pertaining  to  Household  Duties,  Jbe  Care  of  Health, 
Gardening,  Birds,  Education  uf  Children,  &c. ,  &c.     By  Mrs.  L.  G.  Abell. 

SKINNER'S  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE, 25 

Adapted  to  toe  Use  of  American  Far.mers.     By  F.  G.  Skinner. 

SMITH'S   (C.   H.  J.)   LANDSCAPE   GARDENING,   PARES   AND 

PLEASURE  GROUNDS, 1  26 

With  Practical  Xotes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public 

Parks  and  Gardens.  By  Cn.iKi.ES  H.  ,1.  S>rrrH,  Land.scape  Gardener  and  Garden  Archi 
tect.     With  Notes  and  .\dditii)ii»  by  I.Kwis  F.  Alle.v,  author  of"  Rural  Architecture." 

THAER'S  (ALBERT  D.)  AGRICULTURE, 200 

The  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Albert  D.  Thaer  ;  Trans- 
lated by  WiLUAM  SuAW  and  CiTuiuiRT  W.  Joilnson,  Esq.,  F.  R.  S.  W'th  a  Memoir  of 
the  .Author.     1  vol.  8vo. 

This  work  is  regarded,  by  those  who  arc  competent  to  judge,  as  one  of  the  most 
v.aluable  works  that  has  ever  appeared  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture.  At  the  same  limo 
that  it  is  eminently  practical,  it  is  philosophical,  ami,  even  to  tile  general  reader,  re- 
markably entertaining. 

THOMAS'  (J.  J.)  FARM  IMPLEMENTS, 1  00 

And  the  Principles  of  their  Construction  and  Use  ;   an  Ei.f, 

raciuary  and  familiar  Treatise  cm  M<'<hanics  am;  Natural  Philosophy,  as  apphc<i  to  tlie 
ordinary  practices  of  Agriculture.     With  200  illustrations. 

THOMPSON  (R.  D.)  ON  THE  FOOD  OF  ANIMALS,     ■      -      .  75 

Experimental  Researches  on  the  Food  of  Animals  and  thb 

Fattening  of  Cattle  ;  with  Remarks  ou  the  Food  of  Man.  Rised  upon  Experim.Miia  under- 
taken by  order  of  the  British  Government,  by  Robert  Du.vdas  1'hompson.  M.  IX 
Lecturer  on  Practical  Chemistry,  University  of  Glasgow. 

Mailed  pod  paid  upon  reeapt  of  price. 


10  Books  puhlishfid  by  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co. 


THE  BOSE  CTTLTURIST, 60 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  Cultivation, 

and-  Mauagomeut  of  the  Koso  in  all  scasous  ;  with  a  List  of  Choice  aud  Approved  Varie- 
ties, adapted  to  the  Climate  of  the  United  States  ;  to  which  is  added  full  directions  for 
the  Treatment  of  the  Dahlia.     Illustrated  by  engravings. 

TOPHAM'S  CHEMISTEY  MADE  EASY, 25 

For  the  Use  of  Iarmers.     By  J.  Topham. 

TUBNEE'S  COTTON  PLANTES'S  MANUAL, 1  00 

Being  a  Compilation  of  Facts  from  the  Best  Authorities  on 

the  Culture  of  Cotton,  its  Natural  History,  Chemical  Analysis,  Trade  and  Consumption, 
and  embracing  a  History  of  Cotton  and  the  Cotton  Gin.     By  J.  A.  Tl'RXER. 

WAEDEE'S  (J.  A.)  HEDGES  AND  EVERGEEENS,      ....      1  00 
A  Complete  Manual  for  the  Cultivation,  Pruning  and  Man- 

agement  of  all  ri:i:its  s  iit.ible  for  American  Hedging,  especially  the  Maclura  or  Osago 
Orange.  Fully  illustrated  with  engraving  of  plants,  implements  and  processes.  To 
which  is  added  a  TrealUe  on  Ecergreens,  \.'-•^.'<^  diCferent  Varieties,  their  propagation, 
transplanting  and  Culture  in  the  L'nitcil  Stiitjs 

WAEING'S  ELEMENTS  OF  AGEICULTUKjS, 75 

A  Book  fo.^.  Yolno   Farmers,  with  Questions  for  the  use  of 

Schools. 

WEEKS  (JOHN  M.)  ON  BEES-A  MANUAL, 60 

Or,  an  Easy  Method  op  ^[anaging  Bees  in  the  most  profit- 

able  manner  to  th jir  Ow.ior  ;  witli  Infallible  Rules  to  Prevent  their  Destruction  by  the 
Moth.     With  an  .\pjieaili.>;,  by  W-jo-^rER  A.  Ft-\.\i)KK.s. 

WHITE'S  (W.  N.)  GABDENING  FOE  THE  SOUTH,    -      -      -      .      1  25 

Or,  the  Kitchen  and  Fruit  Garden,  with  the  Best  Methods 

for  their  Cultivation  :  tog.lher  with  Hints  upon  l,audscape  and  Flower  Gardening  ;  con- 
taining Modes  of  Culture  and  Descriiitions  of  the  Species  and  Varieties  of  the  Culinary 
Vegetiibles,  Fruit  Trees  and  Fruit.s,  and  a  Select  List  of  Ornamental  Trees  and  Plants, 
Adaoted  to  the  Slates  of  the  Union  South  of  Pennsylvania,  with  Gardening  Calendars  for 
the  same.     By  Wm.  N.  Whfte,  of  Athens,  Georgia. 

YOUATT  AND  MABTIN  ON  CATTLE, 1  25 

Being  a  Treatise  on  their  Breeds,  Manageme.vt,  and  Diseases, 

comprising  a  Full  History  of  the  Various  Races  ;  their  Origin,  Breeding  and  Merits  ; 
their  capacity  for  B  ef  an  i  Milk.  P.y  W.  Vocatt  and  W.  C.  I,.  Martix.  The  whole  form- 
inga  Complete  Gui  Ic  for  th  ■  Farm-r.  the  .■\mateur  aud  the  Veterinary  Surgeon,  with  109 
illustrations.     E  litod  by  Amhr.ise  Stevtc.vs. 

YOUATT  ON  THE  HOBSE, 1  25 

Youatt  on   the  Structure  and  Diseases  of  the  Horse,  with 

their  Remedies  :  also.  Practical  Rules  for  Buyers,  Breeders,  Smiths,  &c.  Edited  by  W. 
C.  Spoonor,  M.R.C.V.S.  With  an  Account  of  the  Breeds  in  the  United  States,  by  Hexrt 
S.  Randall. 

yOUATT  ON  SHEEP, ...         75 

Their  Breed,  .Ma\.\ge.ment  and  Diseases,  with  Illustrative  En- 
gravings ;  to  which  are  a  Id  •  1  R.Mnarkson  the  Breeds  aud  .Management  of  Sheep  in  the 
United  Stiitcs,  au  1  on  tbj  Culturi>  of  Fine  Wool  in  Silesia.    By  Wm.  Vocatt. 

TOUATT  AND  MABTIN  ON  THE  HOG, -         75 

A  Treatise  ox  the  Breeds,  M.a.nagement,  and  Medical  Treat- 

ment  of  Swine,  with  nirectiousfor  Salting  Pork  and  Curing  Bacon  and  Hams.  By  Wm. 
YOUAXT,  V.  S.,  and  W.  C  L.  JLurn.v.  Edited  by  .\mbrose  Stevens.  lUrstrated  with 
engravings  drawn  from  life. 

Mailed  post  paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


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